Injury severity scoring systems: a review of application to practice

Aim: This study reviews the historical development of injury severity scoring systems and their application to clinical practice. Background: A variety of injury severity scoring systems have been developed and applied since more than four decades. It is increasingly important for nurses to be familiar with these scoring systems, their strengths and weaknesses, and their applications to nursing practice. Design: Systematic literature review. Methods: The injury severity scoring systems developed from the 1970s to 2011 were identified via electronic database searches, footnote chasing and contact with clinical experts. The most frequently used scoring systems in the literature were classified according to the criteria used in each scoring system. Conclusions: All injury severity scoring systems are valuable but have certain problems. A universal scoring system applicable for various purposes appears difficult to achieve. However, the understanding and proper use of scoring systems will allow us to perform critical evaluations and continual refinement of trauma management. Relevance to clinical practice: As nurses and researchers, it is critical that we should know the application of these injury severity scoring systems to ensure their quality and appropriate utilization.     

Assessment of a modified 4T scoring system for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in critically ill patients

Purpose

The purpose of the study is to determine if a modified 4T (m4T) scoring system, which omits clinical evaluation of other thrombocytopenic etiologies, is different from the 4T scoring system's probability to predict a positive heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) laboratory test in the intensive care unit.

Materials and methods

This is a single-centered retrospective analysis of critically ill adults who had an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay antiplatelet factor 4 antibody (ELISA anti-PF4 Ab) ordered. Patients were identified as HIT positive (optical density, ≥ 0.40) or HIT negative (optical density, < 0.40) based on the ELISA anti-PF4 Ab. Both 4T and m4T scores were calculated, and the diagnostic accuracy was compared using paired receiver operating characteristic curves.

Results

A total of 1487 adult intensive care unit patients with an ELISA anti-PF4 Ab ordered between January 2007 and December 2009 were eligible for study enrollment. Application of exclusion criteria and random selection yielded a total of 232 patients included for analysis (58 HIT-positive and 174 HIT-negative patients). The area under the curve for the 4T and m4T scores were 0.683 (95% confidence interval, 0.604-0.762) and 0.680 (95% confidence interval, 0.600-0.759), respectively (P = .065).

Conclusion

This study does not show a difference in the probability of the m4T and 4T scoring systems to predict a positive ELISA anti-PF4 Ab test in the critically ill patient population. Further prospective studies are needed to validate the m4T scoring system.     

A scoring system to predict the evolution of respiratory distress syndrome into chronic lung disease in preterm infants

Objective: The purpose of this study was to develop and validate an empirical scoring system to predict the evolution of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) into chronic lung disease (CLD) in preterm infants, by comparing it with a more complicated logistic regression model. Design: Clinical study. Setting: Neonatal intensive care unit. Patients: The retrospective analysis of a 3-year experience showed that a gestational age (GA) of less than 30 weeks, a birth weight (BW) of less than 1000 g, the diagnosis of hyaline membrane disease (HMD) and pulmonary interstitial emphysema (PIE) during the first 72 h of life, the peak inspiratory pressure (PIP) and the fraction of inspired oxygen (FIO₂) were the highest relative risk factors correlated with the evolution of CLD. On this basis an empirical and a statistical scoring system were defined and prospectively applied at 3 and 5 days of life to 228 neonates with BW less than 1250 g. The results obtained with both scoring systems were then compared. Results: Of the 149 infants surviving at 28 days of life, 67 (GA: 29.9 ± 2.3 weeks; BW: 1058 ± 143 g) were normal and 82 (GA: 27.5 ± 3.9 weeks; BW: 838 ± 200 g) had CLD. Using a cut-off value of 4.0, the empirical scoring system showed a specificity of 97.0 % and a sensitivity of 92.7 % on the 3rd day of life; on the 5th day of life the specificity was still 95.5 %, while sensitivity remained 92.7 %. The areas under the ROC curves plotted with both scoring systems tested were similar. Conclusions: The proposed empirical scoring system is easy to use and is highly reliable. The application of this scoring system provides the opportunity to direct aggressive treatment for CLD toward only very high risk patients between the 3rd and 5th days of life. Received: 21 August 1997 Accepted: 10 March 1998     

急性胰腺炎床边指数评分对疾病程度及预后的预测价值

目的与急性胰腺炎（acute pancreatitis,AP）传统评分系统进行比较,探讨急性胰腺炎严重程度床边指数（bedside index for severity in acute pancreatitis,BISAP）评分对疾病程度及预后的预测价值。方法 202例AP患者分别行BISAP、急性生理和慢性健康状况评分（Acute Physiology and Chronic Health EvaluationⅡ,APACHEⅡ）及Ranson评分,比较分析3种评分系统预测AP严重程度、局部并发症、器官功能衰竭的价值。结果 202例AP患者,轻症急性胰腺炎（mild acute pancreatitis,MAP）103例,重症急性胰腺炎（severe acute pancreatitis,SAP）99例;SAP患者发生局部并发症62例,器官功能衰竭60例,23例二类并发症均存在;BISAP评分预测SAP的AUC为0.881（95%CI：0.836-0.927）,最佳cutoff值为2,其预测SAP敏感性、特异性、阳性预测值及阴性预测值分别为88.89%、71.84%、75.21%和87.06%;预测SAP患者局部并发症的AUC为0.715（95%CI：0.644-0.785）,最佳cutoff值为3,预测SAP局部并发症的敏感性、特异性、阳性预测值及阴性预测值分别为77.42%、75.00%、57.83%和88.24%;预测SAP患者器官功能衰竭的AUC为0.884（95%CI：0.837-0.931）,最佳cutoff值为3,预测SAP患者器官功能衰竭的敏感性、特异性、阳性预测值及阴性预测值分别为76.67%、85.21%、68.66%和89.63%。BISAP评分预测AP严重程度、局部并发症、器官功能衰竭的能力与APACHEⅡ和Ranson评分比较差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）。结论 BISAP评分对AP严重程度及预后预测价值与传统评分相同,但构成简单,主观偏倚小,可动态监测变化。     

Internal validation of a scoring system to evaluate the probability of ureteral stones: The CHOKAI score

Objective

The CHOKAI and STONE scores are prediction models for ureteral stones. The aims of the present study were to evaluate the diagnostic performance, to examine the optimal cut-off value, and to compare the diagnostic performance of each model.

Common data elements for traumatic brain injury: recommendations from the interagency working group on demographics and clinical assessment

Maas AI, Harrison-Felix CL, Menon D, Adelson PD, Balkin T, Bullock R, Engel DC, Gordon W, Langlois Orman J, Lew HL, Robertson C, Temkin N, Valadka A, Verfaellie M, Wainwright M, Wright DW, Schwab K. Common data elements for traumatic brain injury: recommendations from the Interagency Working Group on Demographics and Clinical Assessment.Comparing results across studies in traumatic brain injury (TBI) has been difficult because of the variability in data coding, definitions, and collection procedures. The global aim of the Working Group on Demographics and Clinical Assessment was to develop recommendations on the coding of clinical and demographic variables for TBI studies applicable across the broad spectrum of TBI, and to classify these as core, supplemental, or emerging. The process was consensus driven, with input from experts over a broad range of disciplines. Special consideration was given to military and pediatric TBI. Categorizing clinical elements as core versus supplemental proved difficult, given the great variation in types of studies and their interests. The data elements are contained in modules, which are grouped together in categories. Three levels of detail for coding data elements were developed: basic, intermediate, and advanced, with the greatest level of detail in the advanced version. In every case, the more detailed coding can be collapsed into the basic version. Templates were produced to summarize coding formats, motivation of choices, and recommendations for procedures. Work is ongoing to include more international participation and to provide an electronic data entry format with pull-down menus and automated data checks. This proposed standardization will facilitate comparison of research findings across studies and encourage high-quality meta-analysis of individual patient data.     

Assessment, monitoring and emergency nursing care in blunt chest injury: A case study

The case study highlights several complications that commonly develop in trauma patients who sustain blunt chest injuries with underlying lung injury and discusses essential nursing assessment and care. Rib fractures are one of the most common injuries sustained from blunt chest trauma and frequently co-exist with underlying lung injury. Rib fractures alone are associated with high morbidity and mortality. The addition of underlying lung injury such as lung contusions increases the incidence of adverse outcomes. Emergency nursing care must involve thorough assessment and timely intervention with a particular focus on maximising respiratory function and reducing pain. This can be achieved by appropriate oxygen therapy, early chest physiotherapy and adequate analgesic strategies.     

下肢智能反馈训练系统对胸腰段脊髓损伤患者功能恢复的影响

目的:观察下肢智能反馈训练系统对胸腰段脊髓损伤患者下肢运动功能平衡功能、步行能力及日常生活活动能力恢复的影响。方法:将住院治疗的52例不完全性脊髓损伤的患者(损伤平面T10—L1,ASIA分级C级)随机分为治疗组和对照组,各26例。两组患者均给予常规康复治疗。在此基础上治疗组给予下肢智能反馈训练系统治疗,对照组给予普通站立床训练。在治疗前及治疗6周后,分别用ASIA下肢运动功能评定量表(ASIA-LEMS),Berg平衡量表(BBS),脊髓损伤步行指数Ⅱ(WISCI-Ⅱ)及改良Barthel指数量表(MBI)对两组患者的下肢运动功能、平衡功能、步行能力及日常生活活动能力进行评估。结果:治疗前两组患者各方面评分比较差异均无显著性意义(P0.05)。治疗6周后,两组患者ASIA-LEMS评分、Berg平衡功能评分、WISCI-Ⅱ评分及改良Barthel指数评分较治疗前均有提高,差异有显著性(P0.001)。治疗后两组间比较,下肢智能反馈训练系统治疗组ASIA-LEMS评分、Berg平衡功能评分、WISCI-Ⅱ评分高于电动起立床组,差异有显著性(P0.05),改良Barthel指数两组间差异无显著性(P0.05)。结论:下肢智能反馈训练系统对不完全性胸腰段脊髓损伤患者下肢运动能力恢复有一定程度的促进作用。     

3种评分方法对急诊室全身炎症反应综合征患者28 d死亡预测能力的比较

目的 比较急性生理学与慢性健康状况评分系统Ⅱ(APACHEⅡ)、简化急性生理学评分Ⅱ(SAPSⅡ)、急诊脓毒症死亡风险评分(MEDS)对急诊抢救室全身炎症反应综合征(SIRS)患者28 d死亡的预测能力.方法 选取2006年12月-2007年9月在首都医科大学附属北京朝阳医院急诊抢救室救治的621例SIRS患者,分别进行APACHEⅡ、SAPSⅡ和MEDS评分,记录28 d转归情况.通过logistic回归分析评价各评分系统分值与预后的关系,确定SIRS患者28 d死亡的独立预测因素,通过受试者工作特征曲线(ROC曲线)对各独立预测因素的预后能力进行比较.结果 621例患者28 d死亡222例.死亡组患者年龄及3种评分系统的分值均显著高于存活组(年龄:73岁比70岁,APACHEⅡ评分:18分比14分,SAPSⅡ评分:36分比24分,MEDS评分:14分比7分,P<0.05或P<0.01).28 d死亡的独立预测因素有APACHEⅡ、SAPSⅡ、MEDS评分,ROC曲线下面积(AUC)分别为0.715、0.774、0.965.与APACHEⅡ评分比较,MEDS评分的预后能力更佳(Z=35.435,P<0.01).结论 对于急诊抢救室SIRS患者,MEDS具有较好的预后价值.     

Oregon Trauma System: Change in Initial Admission Site and Post-admission Transfer of Injured Patients

Objective: Associate statewide trauma system development with a change in the percentage of injured patients initially hospitalized at Levels I and II categorized trauma hospitals and a change in the length of stay (LOS) prior to arrival at a Level I or II hospital (PRE-LOS) and total LOS (T-LOS) for post-admission transfer patients. Methods: A retrospective analysis was performed using a hospital discharge database of 235,395 discharges with codes for acute injury managed at 74 acute care hospitals in Oregon State from 1983 to 1991. Primary outcome measures were admission site and transfer patient PRE-LOS and T-LOS. Predictor variables included category of initial hospital admission site, injury severity scale (ISS) score, head injury, age, and status of trauma system (pre-system, 1983 to 1987; transitional, 1988 to 1989; and post-system, 1991 to 1992). Results: There was a significant increase in the percentage of initial admissions to hospitals with Level I or II categorization (17.6%, 26.2%, and 27.6% for the three periods of development, respectively; p < 0.00001). The percentage of patients with ISS scores greater than 15 admitted initially to Level I or II hospitals increased from 33.4% to 52.6% and 57.3%; p < 0.00001). Only 1,059 (0.57%) of 185,321 patients initially admitted to Level III, Level IV, or noncategorized hospitals were transferred to a Level I or II hospital. Mean PRE-LOS for the 1,059 transferred patients showed a significant decrease with system development (2.3, 1.9, and 1.8 days, respectively; p < 0.02). When adjusted for age, ISS score, and head injury effects, mean T-LOS was significantly reduced for the transitional and post-system periods (p < 0.05). Conclusions: In Oregon, development of a statewide trauma system was associated with increased initial admissions to Level I and II trauma hospitals. For those patients transferred to higher levels of care post-admission, hospital LOSs were decreased with trauma system development.     

Effectiveness of emergency nurses’ use of the Ottawa Ankle Rules to initiate radiographic tests on improving healthcare outcomes for patients with ankle injuries: A systematic review

BackgroundThe Ottawa Ankle Rules provide guidelines for clinicians on the recommendation of radiographic tests to verify fractures in patients with ankle injuries. The use of the Ottawa Ankle Rules by emergency nurses has been suggested to minimise unnecessary radiographic-test requests and reduce patients’ length of stay in emergency departments. However, the findings of studies in this area are inconsistent.DesignA systematic review was conducted to synthesise the most accurate evidence available on the extent to which emergency nurses’ use of the Ottawa Ankle Rules to initiate radiographic tests improves healthcare outcomes for patients with ankle injuries.Data sourcesThe systematic review attempted to identify all relevant published and unpublished studies in English and Chinese from databases such as Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, ProQuest Health and Medical Complete, EBM Reviews, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL Plus, the British Nursing Index, Scopus, the Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, China Journal Net, WanFang Data, the National Central Library Periodical Literature System, HyRead, the Digital Dissertation Consortium, MedNar and Google Scholar.Review methodsTwo reviewers independently assessed the eligibility of all of the studies identified during the search, based on their titles and abstracts. If a study met the criteria for inclusion, or inconclusive information was available in its title and abstract, the full text was retrieved for further analysis. The methodological quality of all of the eligible studies was assessed independently by the two reviewers.ResultsThe search of databases and other sources yielded 1603 records. The eligibility of 17 full-text articles was assessed, and nine studies met the inclusion criteria. All nine studies were subjected to narrative analysis, and five were meta-analysed. All of the studies investigated the use of the refined Ottawa Ankle Rules. The results indicated that emergency nurses’ use of the refined Ottawa Ankle Rules minimised unnecessary radiographic-test requests and reduced patients’ length of stay in emergency departments. However, the use of these rules in urgent-care departments did not reduce unnecessary radiographic-test requests or patients’ length of stay. The implementation of the refined Ottawa Ankle Rules by emergency nurses with different backgrounds, including nurse practitioners or general emergency nurses was found to reduce patients’ length of stay in emergency departments.ConclusionsThe results of the systematic review suggested that a nurse-initiated radiographic test protocol should be introduced as standard practice in emergency departments.     

慢性阻塞性肺疾病急性加重期患者急性胃肠损伤发生率及其预后研究

目的探讨慢性阻塞性肺疾病急性加重期（AECOPD）患者急性胃肠损伤（AGI）的发生率及其对预后的评价。 方法分析2009年1月至2015年12月在马鞍山十七冶医院重症医学科收治的146例AECOPD患者的临床资料,进行AGI诊断和分级,依据28 d内存活情况,将发生AGI的患者分为存活组（72例）和死亡组（17例）,比较两组患者年龄、性别、合并症以及急性病生理学和长期健康评价（APACHEⅡ）评分、临床肺部感染评分（CPIS）。依据APACHEⅡ评分分值将AECOPD患者分成四组,轻度组（39例）、重度组（53例）、危重度组（35例）和极危重度组（19例）;另依据CPIS评分分值分成三组,轻度组（71例）、中度组（53例）和重度组（22例）,比较各分组间AGI发生率和28 dAGI病死率。同时对不同AGI分级患者的28 d病死率也进行比较。 结果146例AECOPD患者中有89例发生AGI,发生率为60.96%,其中Ⅰ级53例（59.55%）、Ⅱ级19例（21.35%）、Ⅲ级11例（12.36%）、Ⅳ级6例（6.74%）。AECOPD合并AGI患者存活组和死亡组的年龄、性别、合并症等比较,差异均无统计学意义（P均> 0.05）;但存活组患者APACHEⅡ评分[（20 ± 5）分vs.（28 ± 5）分,t = 5.833,P< 0.001]、CPIS评分[（3.5 ± 1.5）分vs.（5.4 ± 1.6）分,t = 4.568,P< 0.001]均显著低于死亡组。APACHEⅡ评分分组中AGI发生率和28 dAGI病死率各组比较,差异均有统计学意义（χ² = 27.369、47.838,P均< 0.001）;而CPIS评分分组中AGI发生率和28 dAGI病死率各组比较,差异也均有统计学意义（χ² = 24.025、47.453,P均< 0.001）。不同AGI分级患者28 d病死率比较（1.89%、15.79%、63.64%和100.00%）,差异有统计学意义（χ² = 49.829,P < 0.05）。 结论AECOPD患者AGI发生率高,且AGI分级越高,预后越差,应当重视AECOPD患者AGI的诊治。     

AF内固定系统加骨水泥填塞治疗胸腰椎压缩骨折远期疗效

目的:应用AF内固定系统加骨水泥填塞治疗创伤后胸腰椎压缩骨折,与单纯采用AF的治疗进行比较,探讨胸腰椎压缩骨折有效的治疗方法。方法:采用AF脊柱内固定系统将56例胸腰椎骨折复位,同时行椎板或横突间植骨融合,其中21例患者在骨折椎体中注入骨水泥,X线检查评价临床效果。结果:56例患者照片示椎弓根钉位置满意,骨折复位良好,术后无神经根损伤及脊髓损伤加重情况,48例患者平均随访24个月,临床症状明显好转,X线照片提示有骨水泥填塞比没有骨水泥填塞的患者胸腰椎矫正度的丢失明显减少。脊柱骨折复位效果:无骨水泥组患者手术前、后Cobb角分别是(31±11)°和(4±4)°,差异有非常显著性意义(t=4.725,P<0.01);骨水泥组患者手术前、后Cobb角分别是(31±13)°和(4±4)°,差异有非常显著性意义(t=4.862,P<0.01)。无骨水泥对胸腰椎骨折后突畸形的矫正度是(26±9)°,骨水泥对后突畸形的矫正度是(27±10)°,骨水泥组与无骨水泥组在后突畸形的矫正度方面无显著性差异(t=1.65,P>0.01)。结论:采用AF内固定系统加骨水泥填塞治疗创伤后胸腰椎压缩骨折能有效维持椎体的高度,更好地防止后期脊柱后凸畸形的复发,减少远期并发症。     

基于《国际功能、残疾和健康分类》的居家脊髓损伤患者功能变化的纵向研究

目的:以移动APP“脊髓损伤患者远程延续护理系统”中的《国际功能、残疾和健康分类》(ICF)相关随访指标为结局评定指标,纵向探讨脊髓损伤患者出院后功能状态的变化趋势.方法:2018年6月-2019年9月,选取广州市、十堰市和成都市4家医院的6个临床科室的符合纳入排除标准的91例脊髓损伤患者,随访护士以APP中的32个随...     

脑状态指数联合中枢神经系统感染评分表在重型脑外伤并发颅内感染患者中的应用

目的探讨脑状态指数(CSI)联合中枢神经系统(CNS)感染评分表在重型脑外伤并发颅内感染患者病情监测中的应用。方法选取2018年6月至2019年6月开封市中心医院神经外科收治的重型脑外伤患者78例,采用CSI评分及CNS评分对患者病情进行评估。结果CSI评分10~30分组、31~50分组、51~80分组、CNS评分0~13分组、14~26分组、27~39分组在性别、年龄、脑挫裂伤、颅内血肿等方面比较差异均无统计学意义(均P>0.05),而CSI评分10~30分组、31~50分组、51~80分组在颅内感染发生率、死亡率、格拉斯哥预后评分(GOS)、Barthel指数差异均有统计学意义(均P<0.05)。CNS评分0~13分组、14~26分组、27~39分组颅内感染发生率及死亡率差异均有统计学意义(均P<0.05)。经Pearson单因素分析可知,CSI评分与CNS评分呈负相关(P<0.05)。结论CSI评分联合CNS评分对重型脑外伤并发颅内感染患者病情判断及预后有重要的价值,可为患者实施预见性护理提供指导,从而降低重型脑外伤患者颅内感染率及死亡率,提高患者临床治疗效果。     

胚胎干细胞移植在中枢神经系统损伤小鼠中的应用

目的:观察经诱导的胚胎干细胞(ES)移植在小鼠脊髓损伤和小鼠缺氧缺血性脑病中的存活和迁移.方法:利用小鼠脊髓损伤(SCI)和缺氧缺血性脑病的模型(HIE),将小鼠胚胎干细胞体外诱导分化为ES细胞的衍生细胞后,注射到脊髓损伤和缺氧缺血性脑病的小鼠体内.移植后观察12周,应用酶学的方法检测Lac-Z标记的经诱导的ES细胞在脊髓和脑内的存活和迁移情况.结果:ES细胞在中枢神经系统损伤区能存活,并进行长距离的迁移,并与周围组织整合.结论:经诱导的胚胎干细胞能在宿主损伤脑和脊髓中存活、迁移,且脑内迁移较脊髓内迁移明显.     

KDIGO标准APACHEⅡ与SOFA评分对脓毒症急性肾损伤患者的预后评估

目的 探讨急性肾损伤国际指南(KDIGO)制定的急性肾损伤(AKI)诊断分期标准、急性生理与慢性健康状况评分Ⅱ(APACHEⅡ)和序贯器官衰竭评估(SOFA)评分对脓毒症AKI患者的预后评估价值.方法 前瞻收集2012-03-01 ～2013-03-01期间在我院ICU接受治疗的脓毒症患者的临床资料,采用KDIGO标准对脓毒症患者进行AKI诊断和分期；根据患者入ICU第1个24h内的生理指标最差值进行APACHEⅡ和SOFA评分,并用受试者工作特征(ROC)曲线评估3项系统对预后评估的准确性.以Logistic多元回归分析对预后的影响.结果 共280例脓毒症患者,占同期ICU住院患者的41.7％ (280/670),总体院内死亡率为29.8％.脓毒症肾损伤168例,占脓毒症患者的60％,其中1期76例,死亡率22.4％；2期48例,死亡率37.5％；3期44例,死亡率72.7％.脓毒症肾损伤患者的APACHEⅡ及SOFA评分均高于非AKI患者(P＜0.05).Logistic多元回归分析显示,APACHEⅡ评分＞22分(OR =4.50),KDIGO分期1、2、3期(OR值分别为2.31、7.44、45.00)是脓毒症并AKI患者院内死亡的独立预测指标.结论 KDIGO诊断标准与APACHEⅡ、SOFA评分对脓毒症肾损伤患者整体预后都有较好的预测价值.     

脊髓损伤患者脑脊液中常、微量元素测定

目的了解脊髓损伤患者神经系统兴奋性及其他方面的特征。方法用电感耦和等离子体原子发射光谱法测定 6例脊髓损伤患者脑脊液 (CSF)中常、微量元素钾、钠、钙、镁、锌、铁、锰、铜的含量。结果本组患者CSF中钙、锌含量明显低于正常值 (P <0 .0 1) ,铁、锰含量明显高于正常值 (P <0 .0 1) ,钠、钾、镁、铜含量与正常值相比无显著性差异。结论脊髓损伤患者中枢兴奋性高于健康人群。     

国内外护理分级的比较分析

护理分级也称患者分类系统,其在护理实践中对量化患者护理需求、衡量护理工作量、确定护理人力资源配置以及核定护理费用起着重要作用。本文通过文献检索,对国内外护理分级的评判标准、分类内容等进行对比,以期在借鉴和参考国外护理分级的基础上,补充、完善我国护理分级的内容,使其更好地适应我国临床护理的发展。