Acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is defined as an abrupt decline in the glomerular filtration rate with accumulation of nitrogenous waste products and the inability to maintain fluid and electrolyte homeostasis. Occurring in 7% of all hospitalized patients and 28% to 35% of those in intensive care units, AKI increases hospital mortality. Early evaluation should include differentiating prerenal and postrenal components from intrinsic renal disease. Biological markers can give early warning of AKI and assist with differential diagnosis and assessment of prognosis. The most effective preventive measure is to maintain adequate circulation and cardiac output, avoiding ischemia- or nephrotoxin-induced injury. To that end, patients and situations of risk must be identified, hemodynamics and diuresis monitored, hypovolemia reversed, and nephrotoxins avoided. Protective agents such as sodium bicarbonate, mannitol, prostagiandins, calcium channel blockers, N-acetyl-L-cysteine, sodium deoxycholate, allopurinol, and pentoxifylline should be used. Treatment includes the elimination of prerenal and postrenal causes of AKI; adjustment of doses according to renal function; avoidance of both overhydration and low arterial pressure; maintenance of electrolytic balance, avoiding hyperkalemia and correcting hyperglycemia; and nutritional support, assuring adequate protein intake. For severe AKI, several modalities of renal replacement therapy, differentiated by mechanism and duration, are available. Timing--neither the best moment to start dialysis nor the optimal duration--has been not established. Early detection of AKI is necessary for preventing progression and starting renal replacement therapy at adjusted doses that reflect metabolic requirements.     

Acute transverse myelitis following scrub typhus: A case report and review of the literature

Context: Scrub typhus is an acute febrile disease caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi. The disease can usually involve the lungs, heart, liver, spleen and brain through hematogenous dissemination. However, very rarely, acute transverse myelitis in the spinal cord develops from scrub typhus. We present a case of acute transverse myelitis following scrub typhus with a review of the literature.

Findings: A 66-year-old male visited a hospital for general myalgia, mild headache, and fever in October. He was noted to have thick, black papule skin on his abdomen, which was highly suggestive of scrub typhus. To confirm the diagnosis, O. tsutsugamushi antibody titers were examined and detected highly in serum by an indirect fluorescence antibody assay. Doxycycline, the standard treatment for scrub typhus, was administered. However, after seven days of treatment, he rapidly developed weakness in the right leg, paresthesia in both lower limbs, and voiding difficulty. Spinal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed lesions with high signal intensity involving the spinal cord at the thoracolumbar junction. Paraparesis gradually improved following steroid pulse therapy for five days. At one-year follow-up, he could walk without cane.

Conclusions: Orientia tsutsugamushi causes scrub typhus, which can affect not only the brain, but also the spinal cord. Although acute transverse myelitis develops rarely from scrub typhus, this should be considered as differential diagnosis in patients of fever with neurological deficit in endemic areas.     

脓毒症的急性肾损伤

脓毒症是危重病患者的常见病因或并发症，也是大家熟知的引起急性肾损伤（AKI）和多脏器功能障碍综合征（MODS）的常见危险因素。急性肾功能衰竭（ARF）发生率在一般脓毒症患者约为19％；在重度脓毒症约为23％；在血培养阳性的脓毒症休克者可高达51％。ARF并发脓毒症的病死率高达70％，明显高于无并发脓毒症的45％。因此，研究并了解AKI和脓毒症的相互关系和作用机制，将有助于降低脓毒症时AKI的高发病率以及相关的高器官衰竭率和病死率。     

Acute kidney injury in children

Acute kidney injury (AKI) (previously called acute renal failure) is characterized by a reversible increase in the blood concentration of creatinine and nitrogenous waste products and by the inability of the kidney to regulate fluid and electrolyte homeostasis appropriately. The incidence of AKI in children appears to be increasing, and the etiology of AKI over the past decades has shifted from primary renal disease to multifactorial causes, particularly in hospitalized children. Genetic factors may predispose some children to AKI. Renal injury can be divided into pre-renal failure, intrinsic renal disease including vascular insults, and obstructive uropathies. The pathophysiology of hypoxia/ischemia-induced AKI is not well understood, but significant progress in elucidating the cellular, biochemical and molecular events has been made over the past several years. The history, physical examination, and laboratory studies, including urinalysis and radiographic studies, can establish the likely cause(s) of AKI. Many interventions such as ‘renal-dose dopamine’ and diuretic therapy have been shown not to alter the course of AKI. The prognosis of AKI is highly dependent on the underlying etiology of the AKI. Children who have suffered AKI from any cause are at risk for late development of kidney disease several years after the initial insult. Therapeutic interventions in AKI have been largely disappointing, likely due to the complex nature of the pathophysiology of AKI, the fact that the serum creatinine concentration is an insensitive measure of kidney function, and because of co-morbid factors in treated patients. Improved understanding of the pathophysiology of AKI, early biomarkers of AKI, and better classification of AKI are needed for the development of successful therapeutic strategies for the treatment of AKI.     

Massive small bowel bleeding caused by scrub typhus in Korea

A 79-year-old man was diagnosed with scrub typhus based on fever, eschar, skin rash and a markedly elevated serum tsutsugamushi antibody and doxycycline was started. Five days later, hematochezia developed and multiple small bowel ulcerations with hemorrhage were seen on colonoscopy. Despite intensive therapy, the massive hematochezia worsened and the distal small bowel was resected. Multiple ulcerated lesions were identified pathologically as vasculitis caused by scrub typhus. This is the first reported case of pathologically proven small bowel involvement in scrub typhus infection.     

Acute kidney injury in surgical patients

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common and dangerous complication of surgical admission with even mild degrees of renal dysfunction being associated with reduced survival. Unfortunately, as confirmed by the UK's National Confidential Enquiry into Patient Outcome and Death (NCEPOD), its recognition is often delayed and management frequently sub-optimal. A failure to recognize relevant risk factors may expose surgical patients, unnecessarily, to an increased likelihood of developing AKI. In this review article, we present a structured approach to prevention, diagnosis and initial management that should provide a framework for the clinical care of all patients either at risk of, or suffering with, AKI.     

Acute kidney injury in older adults

Aging kidneys undergo structural and functional changes that decrease autoregulatory capacity and increase susceptibility to acute injury. Acute kidney injury associates with duration and location of hospitalization, mortality risk, progression to chronic kidney disease, and functional status in daily living. Definition and diagnosis of acute kidney injury are based on changes in creatinine, which is an inadequate marker and might identify patients when it is too late. The incidence of acute kidney injury is rising and increases with advancing age, yet clinical studies have been slow to address geriatric issues or the heterogeneity in etiologies, outcomes, or patient preferences among the elderly. Here we examine some of the current literature, identify knowledge gaps, and suggest potential research questions regarding acute kidney injury in older adults. Answering these questions will facilitate the integration of geriatric issues into future mechanistic and clinical studies that affect management and care of acute kidney injury.     

恙虫病临床特点分析

目的研究恙虫病的临床特点。方法分析恙虫病患者的临床和实验室检查资料。结果 17例恙虫病患者中出现皮肤焦痂及溃疡者15例（88.2%）,部位分别在腰、胸、下腹、腹股沟、骶尾及肛周、腋下、阴囊等处;数量多为1个,平均直径为1.2cm,表面干燥呈黑色,不伴疼痛及瘙痒,焦痂脱落后形成浅溃疡。伴有焦痂附近浅表淋巴结肿大者12例（70.6%）,伴有皮肤出疹者11例（64.7%）,首诊时未发现焦痂患者占58.8%（10例）。出现肝功能异常患者9例（52.9%）,伴支气管炎和肺部感染患者5例（29.4%）,心肌酶谱异常者4例（23.5%）,其他表现包括脾肿大、血小板减少、尿潜血阳性、尿蛋白阳性、腹泻、大便潜血阳性等。结论恙虫病患病临床表现多样,常见多系统受损。皮肤焦痂是本病的重要特征,其发生率高、形态独特,但发生部位较散在而隐蔽,体检若不仔细则易漏检和误诊。皮疹和焦痂附近浅表淋巴结肿大是也是本病常见表现。本病临床表现多样、易复杂化。加强认识、认真查体是防止该病误诊的重要手段。     

Acute kidney injury in cancer patients

Clinical and Experimental Nephrology - We want to know the causes of AKI in oncology patients, including disease-related complications and the nephrotoxicity of chemotherapy drugs, in order to...     

珠海市88例恙虫病临床特征分析

目的：分析珠海市恙虫病的临床特点,提高临床诊断及治疗水平。方法回顾性分析珠海市88例恙虫病患者的临床资料,探讨其临床特点。结果65例患者（73.86%）发病前有草地/树林接触史。临床表现主要有发热（100%）、头痛（63.64%）、乏力（39.33%）、咳嗽（35.23%）,淋巴结肿大（47.73%）、肝脾肿大（35.22%）、皮疹（29.55%）及特异性焦痂/溃疡（95.45%）等。外周血白细胞计数多正常（71.59%）,可伴有嗜酸性粒细胞减少（78.41%）、血小板减少（38.64%）,合并肝损害多见（87.5%）。共有84例患者送检外斐试验98例次,变形杆菌OXK凝集反应阳性效价12例次,阳性率12.24%。氯霉素、米诺环素、多西环素、克拉霉素治疗均有效。结论恙虫病临床表现多样,常累及多个系统,焦痂/溃疡为其最具诊断价值的特异体征,需仔细查体以免误诊。外斐试验阳性率低,不能单独做为诊断依据。氯霉素、四环素类及大环内酯类抗生素治疗效果好。     

Acute kidney injury in the elderly population

The elderly population is more prone to acute kidney injury (AKI) than younger populations. Older patients have less renal reserve because of reduced glomerular filtration rates due to anatomic/functional changes, and concomitant diseases such as hypertension, diabetes, atherosclerosis, heart failure, ischemic renal disease, and obstructive uropathy. The risk of AKI may also increase as a result of aggressive diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, which include medical agents, radiology, and surgical intervention. AKI in the elderly has a multifactorial physiopathology due to different etiologies. Studies that have specifically compared prognosis of AKI in elderly versus young over the recent years suggest that age is a predictor of long-term outcome. In most cases, the treatment of AKI is similar for all age groups. The majority of critically ill patients with AKI will eventually need renal replacement therapy (RRT). The influence of RRT on renal outcome remains a subject of intense investigation and debate. Avoiding situations that could damage the kidney is an important strategy to prevent AKI development in the elderly, besides medical and interventional therapeutics.     

Acute kidney injury in hematopoietic cell transplantation

Hematopoietic cell transplantation is becoming an increasingly common treatment modality for a variety of diseases. However, patient survival may be limited by substantial treatment-related toxicities, including acute kidney injury (AKI). AKI can develop in approximately 70% of patients posttransplant and is associated with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. The development of AKI varies depending on the type of conditioning regimen used and the donor cells infused at the time of transplant, and the etiology often is multifactorial. Epidemiology, risk factors for development, pathogenesis, and potential treatment options for AKI in the hematopoietic cell transplantation population are reviewed as well as newer data on early markers of renal injury. As the indications for and number of transplants performed each year increases, nephrologists and oncologists will have to work together to identify patients who are at risk for AKI to both prevent its development and initiate therapy early to improve outcomes.     

Acute kidney injury following hip fracture

BackgroundHip fracture causes disability and excess mortality in the aging population. Acute kidney injury (AKI), is known to diminish survival of critically ill and trauma patients. AKI is also a common perioperative complication among surgical patients. We examined the effect of AKI on the survival of hip fracture patients in a Finnish hip fracture population and the risk factors for AKI in a prospective study.MethodsThe study cohort constituted of 486 consecutive low-energy trauma hip fracture patients referred to Satakunta Central Hospital (Pori, Finland) and Turku University Hospital (Turku, Finland). The patients underwent standard diagnostics and treatment in the emergency department (ER) and were operated according to the local treatment protocol. Serum creatinine (sCr) was analyzed daily pre- and post-operatively during the hospital stay. Patients were divided into groups; AKI and non-AKI based on Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) criteria.ResultsThe incidence of AKI in the study cohort was 8.4% (40/475). Eleven patients were excluded due to missing sCr data. The baseline characteristics of AKI and non-AKI groups differed significantly concerning baseline sCr but were otherwise similar. At 90-day follow-up, the overall mortality was 14.4%. Patients with AKI had a significantly higher mortality (35.0%) than those with no AKI (12.7%) (p < 0.001). Dementia, preoperative sCr and any stage of AKI were independent predictors for mortality. Dementia and preoperative sCr were independently associated with post-operative AKI.ConclusionIn this study AKI was a significant factor associated with a 3 -fold mortality during the first three months after surgery for low-energy trauma hip fracture.     

心脏手术后急性肾损伤研究进展

急性肾衰竭(acute renal failure,ARF)是心脏手术后常见的并发症之一,与住院时间延长和死亡率增高密切相关.近两年急性肾功能衰竭的概念已被急性肾损伤(acute kidney injury,AKI)所替代,本文就心脏手术后急性肾损伤的研究进展作一综述.     

Acute kidney injury influences mortality in lung transplantation

Objective: To evaluate the association between acute kidney injury (AKI) and long-term survival in lung transplant patients. Methods: Clinical data of 88 patients who underwent lung transplantation (LTx) were retrospectively analyzed at our institution from September 2002 to December 2011. Postoperative AKI was defined and divided into three groups based on creatinine criteria from the Acute Kidney Injury Net (AKIN) classification. A multivariable logistic regression model evaluated risk factors for AKI. Primary outcome was 5-year mortality. Risk adjusted multivariable COX proportional hazards regression examined the association of AKI with mortality. Results: A total of 47 (53.40%) patients developed AKI (27 with AKIN1, 20 with AKIN2-3) in the first week after LTx. Multivariate analysis showed pre-LT (pre-lung transplant) hypertension (OR 1.37 [0.06–2.68], p?=?0.041) and mechanical ventilation (OR 0.05 [0.01–0.09], p?=?0.022) were risk factors for postoperative AKI. Five-year survival rates in the non-AKI, AKIN1, and AKIN2-3 groups were 48.8%, 37.0%, 30.0%, respectively (p?=?0.041). Adjusted for age, sex, type and cause of LT, hypertension and diabetes, the hazard ratio for death was 1.481 ([1.040–2.107]) for AKI. Conclusions: The occurrence of AKI after LTx is common. Severe AKI would increase long-term mortality risk. Several variables, including pre-LT hypertension and mechanical ventilation, are associated with AKI after LTx.     

Acute kidney injury in hospitalized COVID-19 patients

International Urology and Nephrology - Acute kidney injury (AKI) in COVID-19 patients is associated with poor prognosis. However, the incidence, risk factors and potential outcomes of AKI in...