Soup preloads in a variety of forms reduce meal energy intake

Consuming soup can enhance satiety and reduce energy intake. Little is known about the influence on energy intake and satiety of varying the form of soup by altering the blending of ingredients. We tested the effects on meal intake of consuming different forms of soup as a preload: broth and vegetables served separately, chunky vegetable soup, chunky-pureed vegetable soup, or pureed vegetable soup. Normal-weight men and women (n = 60) came to the laboratory for lunch once a week for 5 weeks. Each week, one of four compulsory preloads, or no preload, was consumed prior to lunch. A test meal was consumed ad libitum 15 min after the soup was served. Results showed that consuming soup significantly reduced test meal intake and total meal energy intake (preload + test meal) compared to having no soup. When soup was consumed, subjects reduced meal energy intake by 20% (134+/-25 kcal; 561+/-105 kJ). The type of soup had no significant effect on test meal intake or total meal energy intake. Consuming a preload of low-energy-dense soup, in a variety of forms, is one strategy for moderating energy intake in adults.     

Effect of an Acute Insect Preload vs. an Almond Preload on Energy Intake,Subjective Food Consumption and Intestinal Health in Healthy Young Adults

Protein is considered the most satiating macronutrient, and its effect on satiety and food intake is source-dependent. For the first time, we compared the effect of the administration of an insect or almond preload, both containing 20 g of protein, on appetite and food intake in human subjects. Participants consumed both foods and a vehicle as a liquid preload on three separate days. They were then offered a breakfast and lunch buffet meal at which food intake was measured. Visual analogue scale (VAS) questionnaires were completed following the three preloads to assess appetite and other sensations. At breakfast, reduced energy intake was observed for both preloads compared with vehicle. At lunch, food intake only differed in the insect group, which consumed more than the vehicle. Insect preload increased the total amount of protein ingested with a slight increase in total energy consumed, differently than almond, which significantly increased total protein and energy consumed. There was no correlation between indigestion-sensation ratings and food intake. Moreover, the insect preload resulted in lower sleepiness and tiredness ratings compared with the almond preload. Thus, insect-derived protein may be suitable as a safe ingredient for snacks intended for elderly or infirm patients who require increased protein intake.     

Interaction of Protein Preloads and Physical Activity on Intake of an Ultra-Processed,High Sugar/High Fat Food/Low Protein Food

“Loss of control, LOC” eating is a major contributor to the development of obesity. Dietary protein is known to promote satiety, but little attention has been paid to the ability of protein, consumed in close proximity to snacking (20 min), to reduce the intake of ultra-processed, low-protein snack foods. We hypothesized that a high-protein preload (HP, 8 g of protein) consumed in close proximity to eating an ultra-processed snack food would reduce intake of the snack food as compared to a low-protein preload (LP, 1.2 g of protein). Two laboratory test meals were conducted, and the intake of ice cream (1.99 kcal/gram) after consuming dairy-based liquid preloads was measured. Habitual physical activity, a potential modulator of satiety, was assessed by a self-reporting questionnaire. Thirty (responders) out of 50 participants reduced their intake of ice cream after the HP preload, with a significant difference in intake observed between the responders and non-responders (−30 ± 25 and 18 ± 18 g, F (1, 49) = 54.36, p < 0.001 for responders and non-responders, respectively). Our data demonstrate that protein consumed in close proximity to ultra-processed snack food can reduce caloric intake by ~60 kcal, which could potentially reduce body weight by at least 5 pounds per year.     

The effects of consuming eggs for lunch on satiety and subsequent food intake

The aim of the present work was to investigate the effects of eggs consumed for lunch on satiety, satiation and subsequent energy intake at the next meal. Thirty-one healthy male and female subjects participated in a randomized, three-way, crossover study. Following consumption of a standard breakfast, participants were asked to consume three isocaloric test lunches: omelette, jacket potato and chicken sandwich. Subjective measures of satiety were recorded using visual analog scales at regular intervals throughout the day. Energy intake at the next meal was assessed 4 h after lunch with an ad libitum meal. The egg lunch showed a significantly stronger satiating effect compared with the jacket potato meal. No effect on energy intake was seen. These data indicate that consumption of an omelette meal consumed at lunch could increase satiety to a greater extent than a carbohydrate meal and may facilitate reduction of energy consumption between meals.     

The effects of consuming eggs for lunch on satiety and subsequent food intake

The aim of the present work was to investigate the effects of eggs consumed for lunch on satiety, satiation and subsequent energy intake at the next meal. Thirty-one healthy male and female subjects participated in a randomized, three-way, crossover study. Following consumption of a standard breakfast, participants were asked to consume three isocaloric test lunches: omelette, jacket potato and chicken sandwich. Subjective measures of satiety were recorded using visual analog scales at regular intervals throughout the day. Energy intake at the next meal was assessed 4 h after lunch with an ad libitum meal. The egg lunch showed a significantly stronger satiating effect compared with the jacket potato meal. No effect on energy intake was seen. These data indicate that consumption of an omelette meal consumed at lunch could increase satiety to a greater extent than a carbohydrate meal and may facilitate reduction of energy consumption between meals.     

Sex and cognitive dietary restraint influence cholecystokinin release and satiety in response to preloads varying in fatty acid composition and content

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of preloads differing in fatty acid composition, content, and delivery form on acute behavioral, subjective, and biological outcomes of satiety. Four energy- and volume-matched preloads were tested in normal weight men and women (n = 12 and 13, respectively), using a random, crossover design. Preloads were semisolid shakes differing in fat source [walnut or safflower (SAFF)], delivery [ground walnuts (WNT) or walnut oil (WOL)] or content [39% fat energy (SAFF, WNT, WOL) or 4% low-fat control (LFC)]. Blood was collected and subjective satiety assessed at 0 (fasting), 15, 30, and 45 min after preload consumption. Lunch (test meal) was provided thereafter. Energy intake at lunch was not affected by preload; however, subjects selected more carbohydrate, fiber-rich foods at the test meal lunch after walnut preloads than after LFC or SAFF preloads. Compared with the LFC preload, appetite satisfaction was significantly greater after SAFF and WNT, but not after WOL. Women were hungrier after SAFF than after WOL, whereas men were less hungry after SAFF and LFC than after WOL or WNT. Plasma cholecystokinin (CCK) concentrations reflected preload fat content and availability, particularly among men; CCK was higher after WOL and SAFF preloads than after LFC or WNT preloads. Plasma insulin was higher after LFC and SAFF preloads, corresponding to hunger suppression in men. Dietary restraint was associated with a blunted CCK response to preloads, whereas insulin was not affected by restraint. The results indicate that test meal energy intake after preloads containing approximately 40% walnut or safflower fat or 4% fat did not differ; however, walnut consumption may promote food patterns consistent with consuming diets higher in fiber.     

Effects of macronutrient content and energy density of snacks consumed in a satiety state on the onset of the next meal

We examined the effects of nutrient composition of a 1 MJ afternoon snack, consumed in a satiety state, on the spontaneous onset of the next meal in 11 young male subjects deprived of any temporal cues. All subjects attended four experimental sessions scheduled 2 weeks apart. The first, baseline, session served to establish: (1) the subjects' ad libitum lunch intake, (2) the latency of the spontaneous request for dinner following lunch, (3) ad libitum food intake at dinner. Lunches provided during the next three sessions were based on baseline lunch intakes. During the following three sessions, conducted in counterbalanced order, subjects were given a high-fat (58% of energy from fat), a high-protein (77%) or a high-carbohydrate (84%) snack to be consumed 240 min after the beginning of lunch. Latency to dinner and the amount of energy consumed at dinner were two dependent variables. Consumption of a high-protein snack delayed the request for dinner by 60 min. In contrast, high-fat snack delayed dinner request by 25 min, whereas high-carbohydrate snack delayed dinner request by 34 min. Snack composition had no impact on energy or macronutrient intakes during dinner.     

A Satiety Quotient: A Formulation to Assess the Satiating Effect of Food

This paper introduces a satiety quotient (SQ) to assess the satiating effect of an eating episode. This procedure constitutes an improvement on previous measures by considering the satiating effects of the eating episode over time. A satiety quotient was calculated from data obtained from several studies involving the presentation of a preload/meal to young lean male and female subjects. Subjects were presented with preloads/meals of varying composition, and motivation to eat immediately prior to, and periodically following, the eating episode were measured. Food and fluids were not consumed whilst motivation to eat was measured in the post preload/meal period. The SQ was calculated by dividing the difference between ratings of motivation to eat before and after the eating episode (pre minus post) by the weight or energy content of intake during the episode. This quotient relates intake to the rate of return of motivation to eat in the post-ingestive period, a relationship which is not apparent on separate examination of the amount consumed or ratings of motivation to eat. Development of this satiety quotient is a further contribution to the evolution of the concept of quantifying satiating effects of foods, and provides additional information on the effects of food attributes on short-term appetite control.     

Comparison of high-fat and high-carbohydrate foods in a meal or snack on short-term fat and energy intakes in obese women

The present study aimed to compare the action of high-fat and high-carbohydrate (CHO) foods on meal size (satiation) and post-meal satiety in obese women. A within-subjects design was used; each participant received all four nutritional challenges. Fifteen healthy obese women (age 21-56 years, BMI 35-48 kg/m2) participated; thirteen completed all four test days. On two test days, participants were exposed to a nutritional challenge comprising an ad libitum high-fat or high-CHO lunch. On the other two test days they were exposed to a challenge comprising an ad libitum sweet high-fat or high-CHO mid-afternoon snack. Energy and macronutrient intakes were measured at each eating episode. Visual analogue rating scales were completed periodically to record subjective feelings of appetite. When offered a high-CHO selection of foods at lunch and mid-afternoon participants consumed less energy than when offered a high-fat selection. However, post-meal satiety was similar. Total test-day energy intake was significantly higher when high-fat foods were consumed at lunch, but not as a snack. Consumption of high-fat foods at a lunch and snack increased the amount of fat consumed over the whole test day. In conclusion, energy intake of an eating episode was influenced by nutrient composition in this group of obese women. Consumption of high-fat foods at lunch or as a snack led to overconsumption relative to high-CHO foods. However, high-fat foods at meals may have greater potential to influence daily intake than at snacks, probably because meals are larger eating episodes and therefore give greater opportunity to overconsume.     

Behavioral assessment of satiety in bulimia nervosa

The abnormalities in eating behavior associated with bulimia nervosa suggest that patients with this illness may have a disturbance in satiety. The present study employed a six-meal protocol to assess satiety in both binge and non-binge eating episodes in women with bulimia nervosa and normal controls by examining whether an increase in the size of a soup preload led to a decrease in the amount of food consumed in a subsequent test meal. In control subjects, the increase in preload size was associated with an increase in fullness and a reduction in consumption of the non-binge test meal. Patients did not report consistent changes in ratings of hunger and fullness in response to the change in preload size, and few patients were able to complete the non-binge meals and refrain from vomiting afterwards. When instructed to binge eat, patients ate considerably more than control subjects, but patients did significantly reduce their intake of the test meal after the large compared to the small preload. These findings demonstrate that, although patients with bulimia nervosa exhibit abnormalities in the development of satiety, some mechanisms responsible for the control of food intake are functional during binge eating episodes.     

Effects of consuming mycoprotein, tofu or chicken upon subsequent eating behaviour, hunger and safety

This study tested if: (1) a preload of mycoprotein and tofu consumed before a lunch meal have a greater effect on satiety when compared to a chicken preload, (2) the mycoprotein and tofu preloads, compared to chicken, are not associated with compensation or eating more food at a subsequent dinner meal. These hypotheses were tested in a controlled laboratory study using universal eating monitors to measure food intake and visual analogue scales to monitor hunger and satiety. Forty-two overweight adult females consumed three meals in the laboratory on 3 test days. At lunch, isocaloric pasta preloads, containing mycoprotein, tofu, or chicken, varied across the days in a balanced order. The findings of the study supported the two hypotheses. Mycoprotein and tofu preloads, in comparison to the chicken preload, were associated with lower food intake shortly after consuming the preload at lunch. Food intake following consumption of mycoprotein and tofu did not differ, and participants did not compensate for lower food intake at lunch by consuming more food at dinner. The findings suggest that mycoprotein and tofu have satiating properties that persist for several hours after a meal. These findings have significant implications for the development of foods that are low in kilojoules, but are also filling.     

A comparison of effects of fish and beef protein on satiety in normal weight men

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have indicated that fish protein may have a greater effect on satiety compared to other protein sources of animal origin.OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of fish protein and beef protein meals on hunger and satiety. DESIGN: Twenty-three normal non-smoking, healthy males aged 20-32 years, body mass index 22.5+/-1.8 (s.d.) kg/m(2) participated in a study, with within-subjects design and 1 week between test days. In the morning of the test days, subjects received a standardized breakfast. Four hours after breakfast, subjects were served an iso-energetic protein-rich (40 energy % protein) lunch meal, consisting of either a fish protein dish or a beef protein dish. Four hours after the start of the lunch meals, an ad libitum standardized evening meal was served and the intake of food was measured. Appetite was rated by visual analogue scales (VAS) immediately before and after the meals, as well as every hour between the meals. After the evening meal until bedtime, subjects were asked to record in detail foods and drinks consumed. RESULTS: The repeated VAS-ratings of hunger, satiety and prospective consumption were modelled in a random effects model, taking pre-lunch VAS-ratings into account. After the fish meal, the point estimates were lower for hunger (-2+/-4.8), higher for satiety (8.7+/-6.0) and lower for prospective consumption (-4.9+/-4.7), but they did not reach statistical significance (P satiety=0.88; P hunger=0.15; P prospective=0.30). However, the energy intake at the evening meal displayed significant differences with subjects eating less after the fish protein lunch (2765 vs 3080 KJ, P<0.01) without feeling less satiated. No later energy compensation after the evening meal was found on the test day. CONCLUSION: Although no significant differences in VAS-ratings of satiety or hunger were detected, subjects displayed an 11% reduction in energy intake at the subsequent evening meal.     

Increasing the portion size of a packaged snack increases energy intake in men and women

The objective of this study was to determine how the portion size of a packaged snack affects energy intake of the snack and of the subsequent meal. On five separate days, 60 subjects (34 women and 26 men) ate an afternoon snack and dinner in individual cubicles. For each snack, subjects were served one of five packages of potato chips (28, 42, 85, 128, or 170 g), which they consumed ad libitum directly from the unlabelled, opaque package. Subjects returned to the lab three hours later for a standard dinner, which was also consumed ad libitum. Results showed that snack intake increased significantly as the package size increased for both males and females (p < 0.001). The combined energy intake from snack and dinner also increased as the package size increased. On average, when served the largest snack package compared to the smallest, subjects consumed an additional 596 kJ (143 kcal) at snack and dinner combined. Results from this study demonstrate that short-term energy intake increases with increasing package size of a snack. These data suggest that the availability of large packages of energy-dense snacks may be one of the environmental influences associated with excess energy intake.     

Incorporation of air into a snack food reduces energy intake

This study investigated how the air content of a familiar snack food affected energy intake and whether varying the method of serving the snack modified intake. We tested two versions of an extruded snack (cheese puffs) that were equal in energy density (5.7 kcal/g), but differed in energy per volume (less-aerated snack: 1.00 kcal/ml; more-aerated snack: 0.45 kcal/ml). In a within-subjects design, 16 women and 12 men consumed the snacks ad libitum in the laboratory during four afternoon sessions. A standard volume (1250 ml) of each snack was served once in a bowl and once in an opaque bag. Results showed significant differences in intake of the two snacks by energy (p=0.0003) and volume (p<0.0001); subjects consumed 21% less weight and energy (70+/-17 kcal) of the more-aerated snack than the less-aerated snack, although they consumed a 73% greater volume of the more-aerated snack (239+/-24 ml). These findings suggest that subjects responded to both the weight and volume of the snack. Despite differences in intake, hunger and fullness ratings did not differ across conditions. The serving method did not significantly affect intake. Results from this study indicate that incorporating air into food provides a strategy to reduce energy intake from energy-dense snacks.     

Effect of time of consumption of preloads on measures of satiety in healthy normal weight women

Differences in the time interval between preload and test meal may account for the variation in the satiating effects of whey protein found in previous preload studies. The objective was to compare the satiating effects (ad libitum meal intake at a set time after ingestion of preload) of whey protein (including glycomacropeptide) and maltodextrin carbohydrate and to determine whether such effects were influenced by the timing of preloads. On nine separate days, 19 healthy normal weight women consumed mixed composition preloads containing either water, or maltodextrin, or whey protein, 30, 60 or 120min before an ad libitum test meal. Whey protein reduced food intake (p<0.05) at the test meal more than maltodextrin and water (respective food energy intakes were 2343, 2584 and 3135kJ). The time interval between preload and test meal did not affect the food intake response. Total energy intake (preload+test meal) differed, with intake for the maltodextrin-enriched preload being greater than that for the whey protein-enriched preload, which was greater than for the water control. Total respective energy intakes were 3955, 3676 and 3135kJ. Subjective ratings of appetite did not support a greater satiating effect of whey protein versus maltodextrin on food intake but there was evidence for a satiating effect of maltodextrin and whey protein versus the water control.     

Effect of Portion Size Information on Food Intake

The term portion size is used differently by food manufacturers, regulatory agencies, and consumers. As such, it is unclear how information about portion size may influence perceived satiety and intake of foods by consumers. The objective of this study was to examine how portion size information influences satiety and intake, and how consumers interpret the term portion size. A randomized controlled design was used in which subjects were served a lunch meal consisting of a preload of pasta followed by ad libitum servings of the same pasta. In each of three separate sessions the subjects were told that the preload meal constituted ½, 1, or 1½ portions of pasta. Thirty-three normal-weight subjects (22 males and 11 females) were recruited from a 250-member volunteer employee panel at Natick Research, Development, and Engineering Center during January 2005. Main measures were pre- and post-preload hunger/fullness ratings, liking ratings, amount consumed of the pasta after the preload, and Likert ratings of statements about different definitions of portion size. Results showed that portion size information did not influence satiety ratings or total intake. Consumers associated portion size more with daily nutrient requirements than with an ideal quantity for a satiating meal (P<0.01). Information about portion size may not be a good tool to manipulate food-intake behavior. Consumers' concept of portion size is associated more with objective measures of food than with personal experience about the amount that would be appropriate to eat.     

Does the consumption of caloric and non-caloric beverages with a meal affect energy intake?

Beverages are frequently consumed with meals, but their influence on meal energy intake is not understood. We hypothesized that differences in the energy, nutrient content, and sensory properties of beverages consumed with a meal would affect intake. Forty-four women ate lunch in the laboratory once a week for 6 weeks. Lunch was consumed ad libitum, and was served with one of five beverages that were consumed in full, or no beverage. The beverages were 360 g of water, diet cola, regular cola, orange juice, and 1% milk. Results showed an effect of beverage type on meal intake (p<0.0001). Energy intake did not differ among the non-caloric and no-beverage conditions. Similarly, energy intake from lunch (including beverage) did not differ among the caloric beverage conditions. When a caloric beverage (156 kcal; 653 kJ) was consumed with the meal, energy intake was 104+/-16 kcal (435+/-67 kJ) greater than when a non-caloric beverage or no beverage was consumed. Subjects' ratings of fullness after lunch did not differ among the beverage conditions, but were lower for the no-beverage condition. These results show that when caloric beverages are consumed with a meal they add to energy intake from food, without significantly affecting satiety ratings.     

Isocaloric meal and snack foods differentially affect eating behavior

The present study tested whether foods categorized as meals reduce subsequent intake more than isocaloric foods categorized as snacks. The study was repeated three times with variations. In each variation we manipulated whether subjects received meal or snack foods in an isocaloric load. In Variation 1, subjects consumed less following a load of meal foods than snacks. Variation 2 found this effect to be short-term, affecting food choice 20 min following a load but not 3 h later. Variation 3 demonstrated: (1) this effect occurs independent of the effects of the weights of foods, and (2) this effect varies specifically with subject perceptions of foods (i.e. whether they are part of a meal or snack). These results are discussed in terms of how cognitive representations of preload foods can influence subsequent consumption.     

Failure to Reduce Short-term Appetite Following Alcohol is Independent of Beliefs about the Presence of Alcohol

Previously, it has been reported that energy consumed as alcohol prior to lunch does not result in subsequent reductions in voluntary food intake, and in some situations alcohol can increase subsequent appetite. The present study extends these findings by examining the effects of beliefs about alcohol content. Eighteen unrestrained men ate lunch 20 min after a preload of either water, an alcoholic beer or a non-alcoholic beer matched for energy content. Food intake was significantly less following the non-alcoholic beer than after alcohol or water, but when preload energy was included subjects had a higher overall energy intake on the day they consumed alcohol compared with both water and no-alcohol conditions. There were no significant differences in hunger or fullness ratings following the three drinks before or after the test meal, but the specific relationship between rated hunger and intake within the test meal was altered by the drink manipulation. The rate at which hunger decreased, and fullness increased, was slower after alcohol than after water or no-alcohol. The drinks did not alter the pleasantness of the test meal or increase hunger at the start of eating. When contrasted with previous work, these data confirm that alcohol consumed before lunch fails to reduce subsequent food intake, but also suggests that changes in rated appetite are influenced by beliefs about alcohol content.     

Effects of cereal bar containing polydextrose on subjective feelings of appetite and energy intake in overweight adults over 15 d

The effects of 15?d polydextrose (16.7?g) consumption on energy intake (EI) and appetite feelings were investigated. Overweight adults consumed a polydextrose-bar or a control-bar matched in energy content as a midmorning snack for 15 consecutive days in a single-blind, randomised, crossover design. The two 15-d intervention periods were separated by a 15-d washout period. On the day 1 and the day 15 of each intervention period, energy intake (primary outcome) and appetite feelings (secondary outcome) were assessed. There were not significant main effects of the day, type of bar, or their interaction for EI (at lunchtime test meal, at rest of the day, or at total daily) or subjective feelings (hunger, desire to eat, fullness, and prospective food consumption) during the satiation and satiety periods. The results showed the consumption of polydextrose-bar during 15?d did not significantly affect energy intake and subjective feelings of appetite in overweight adults.