Prevalence and epidemiology of onychomycosis

The prevalence of onychomycosis has been estimated at approximately 6.48% (95% confidence interval 6.09-6.88%) within the Canadian population. Dermatophytes are the most commonly cultured organisms, appearing in approximately 75 to 91% of nails with fungal involvement, with Trichophyton rubrum and Tricophyton mentagrophytes most commonly isolated. However, Candida spp and nondermatophyte molds are also sometimes cultured. The most common presentation is distal and lateral subungual onychomycosis (DLSO), which can involve 75% of patients with pedal onychomycosis. The distribution of DLSO, superficial white onychomycosis, and proximal subungual onychomycosis (PSO) has been reported to be 360:59:1 in patients with mycologic confirmation of onychomycosis; however, some reported that the incidence of PSO is slightly higher in immunocom-promised individuals. Age, gender, family history, and the presence of tinea pedis are all elements associated with a nail fungal infection. In addition, many conditions, including diabetes mellitus, immune disorders, and vascular disease, have been associated with the presence of onychomycosis. When choosing the best treatment regimen for individuals with onychomycosis, it is very important to consider all of the factors involved, including the infecting species, the presentation of the disease, the level of disease progression, and its predisposing factors.     

Nail sampling in onychomycosis: comparative study of curettage from three sites of the infected nail

Background: Onychomycosis is a common problem.Obtaining accurate laboratory test results before treatment is important in clinical practice since the treatment of onychomycosis requires expensive oral antifungal therapy with potentially serious side‐effects. The purpose of this study was to compare results of curettage technique of nail sampling in the diagnosis of onychomycosis from three different sites of the affected nail to establish the best location of sampling. Patients and Methods: We evaluated 194 patients suffering from distal and lateral subungual onychomycosis (DLSO) and lateral subungual onychomycosis (LSO) using curettage technique. KOH examination and fungal culture were used for detection and identification of fungal infection. Results: The culture sensitivity improves significantly as the location of the sample is more proximal. Trichophyton rubrum was by far the most common pathogen detected from all sampling sites. Conclusions: We found that the culture sensitivity improved as the location of the sample was more proximal. More types of pathogens were detected in samples taken from proximal parts of the affected nails.     

Brief treatment guide for onychomycosis

Most onychomycosis infections result from dermatophyte organisms and present as distal lateral subungual onychomycosis (DLSO). Mild to moderate infections may be effectively treated with topical lacquer medications; however, there is no general consensus on what constitutes mild infection. In general, mild infections involve relatively small areas of the nail plate without infection of the nail matrix or lunula. Characteristics such as nail thickness, the number of nails affected, and the degree of onycholysis will also be taken into account in the categorization of nail severity and may increase the severity to moderate or severe even where nail plate area involvement is low. Similarly, although an infection may be mild, for patients with underlying health issues such as diabetes or immunodeficiency, oral therapy may be recommended as it typically provides the higher treatment efficacy required by these conditions. Severe infections may be treated with oral antifungal agents or combinations of oral agents and oral antifungals or oral and topical lacquer antifungals. Débridement is a technique that may be used in nearly any degree of infection to aid treatment efficacy by reducing the burden of fungal infection. Other treatment issues discussed include superficial white onychomycosis, nondermatophyte mold infection, and infection prophylaxis. Treatment is discussed considering a dermatophyte infection of DLSO presentation, unless otherwise stated. Infections should be confirmed by laboratory culture to eliminate any other diagnosis. Therapy recommendations concentrate on those agents approved in Canada for onychomycosis: oral terbinafine, oral itraconazole, and ciclopirox 8% nail lacquer.     

Review of antifungal therapy and the severity index for assessing onychomycosis: part I

This review outlines recent data on treatment modalities and outcomes with antifungal therapy in onychomycosis. Included are topical, mechanical, chemical and systemic treatments or a combination thereof. Topical treatments, or transungual drug delivery systems (TUDDS), including ciclopirox and amorolfine were shown to be effective if used alone for mild-moderate nail involvement. Specifically, superficial white onychomycosis (SWO) restricted to the dorsum of the nail plate and moderate distal lateral subungual onychomycosis (DLSO). Mechanical treatments were mostly effective as adjuncts to topical therapy which include nail avulsion and abrasion. In particular, partial nail avulsion aids topical therapy in DLSO and partial subungual onychomycosis for a more effective therapy. Chemical avulsion is a painless method of debridement which uses a keratinolysis formula that is effective only in limited and early disease. Systemic therapies have been shown to be effective with terbinafine and itraconazole is suggested as being the most cost-effective therapy. Systemic therapies require consideration of side effects and monitoring by both patient and physician prior to treatment application. An effective suggestion is the use of a topical with debridement for mild-moderate onychomycosis and systemic (terbinafine) plus topical for severe onychomycosis. Most treatment modalities will require long-term use from 3 to 9 months to be most effective, with strategies presented in Part II of this review.     

Onychomycosis in Lahore, Pakistan

BACKGROUND: Onychomycosis, a common nail disorder, is caused by yeasts, dermatophytes, and nondermatophyte molds. These fungi give rise to diverse clinical presentations. The present study aimed to isolate the causative pathogens and to determine the various clinical patterns of onychomycosis in the population in Lahore, Pakistan. PATIENTS: In 100 clinically suspected cases, the diagnosis was confirmed by mycologic culture. Different clinical patterns were noted and correlated with causative pathogens. RESULTS: Seventy-two women (mean age, 32.6 +/- 14.8 years) and 28 men (mean age, 40.6 +/- 15.8 years) were studied. Fingernails were involved in 50%, toenails in 23%, and both fingernails and toenails in 27% of patients. The various clinical types noted were distolateral subungual onychomycosis (47%), candidal onychomycosis (36%), total dystrophic onychomycosis (12%), superficial white onychomycosis (3%), and proximal subungual onychomycosis (2%). Candida was the most common pathogen (46%), followed by dermatophytes (43%) (Trichophyton rubrum (31%), T. violaceum (5%), T. mentagrophytes (4%), T. tonsurans (2%), and Epidermophyton floccosum (1%) and nondermatophyte molds (11%) (Fusarium (4%), Scopulariopsis brevicaulis (2%), Aspergillus (2%), Acremonium (1%), Scytalidium dimidiatum (1%), and Alternaria (1%). CONCLUSIONS: Onychomycosis is more common in women of 20-40 years of age. Distolateral subungual onychomycosis and candidal onychomycosis are the most common clinical presentations, and Candida and T. rubrum are the major pathogens in Pakistan.     

Effects of foot care intervention including nail drilling combined with topical antifungal application in diabetic patients with onychomycosis

We performed periodical foot care intervention including nail drilling combined with topical antifungal application for 6 months or more in 24 diabetic patients with onychomycosis who were not receiving oral antifungals, and evaluated its effects. The type of onychomycosis was superficial white onychomycosis (SWO) in eight patients, and distal-lateral subungual onychomycosis (DLSO) in 16. The state of onychomycosis was evaluated according to the Scoring Clinical Index for Onychomycosis (SCIO). Of the eight patients with SWO, none showed aggravation of the onychomycosis state, and two were cured 6 months after the initiation of intervention and two after 1 year (total of four patients, 50%). In the patients with DLSO, the SCIO score was 18.1 +/- 6.5 before intervention but significantly decreased to 14.6 +/- 6.6 6 months after intervention. In 12 patients who we were able to consecutively follow up for 1 year, the SCIO score also significantly decreased compared with the score before intervention. Thus, foot care intervention including nail drilling combined with topical antifungal application had effects on onychomycosis and achieved cure in some patients with SWO. In addition, intervention increased patients' awareness of foot care, showing educational effects. Therefore, foot care intervention including nail drilling may be useful.     

266例黑甲性皮损的皮肤镜特点分析

【摘要】 目的 比较临床常见黑甲性疾病的皮肤镜表现及特点。方法 回顾性分析2016年1月至2020年7月在第四军医大学西京皮肤医院行皮肤镜检查的4种常见黑甲皮损皮肤镜图像特征。结果 共纳入266例黑甲性皮损,其中甲黑素瘤64例（24.1%）,甲母痣52例（19.5%）,甲下出血89例（33.5%）,甲真菌病61例（22.9%）。甲黑素瘤及甲母痣多发于指甲,甲黑素瘤发生于拇指甲的比例高（62.8%）,甲母痣则更多发生于2 ~ 5指甲（73.9%）;甲下出血及甲真菌病多发于趾甲,其中甲下出血51例（57.3%）,甲真菌病46例（75.4%）。甲黑素瘤好发于40岁以上患者（49例,76.8%）,其余3组疾病则多见于40岁以下患者。甲黑素瘤皮肤镜表现主要为纵向规则条带（35例,54.7%）或不规则条带（25例,39.0%）,87.5%的病例色素带宽度大于3 mm, 36例（56.3%）Hutchinson征阳性, 15例（23.4%）破溃,颜色以黑褐色为主;甲母痣表现为单一规则色素带结构（52例,100%）,36例（69.2%）色素带宽度小于3 mm,26例（50%）Hutchinson征阳性,无破溃病例;甲下出血表现为弥漫性斑疹（74例,83.1%）,85例（95.5%）见暗红色或黑色出血小球结构;黑甲性甲真菌病表现为黑褐色纵向不规则条带（54例,88.5%）。结论 皮肤镜下,甲黑素瘤可表现为纵向规则条带,条带宽幅大于3 mm,甲母痣多表现为纵向规则条带,甲下出血表现为弥漫性污斑,甲真菌病可表现为纵行不规则条带。皮肤镜可用于鉴别黑甲性皮损,为甲黑素瘤辅助诊断提供依据。     

长脉宽Nd:YAG激光治疗甲真菌病疗效观察

目的 探讨长脉宽Nd:YAG激光治疗甲真菌病的疗效及安全性。 方法 对35例甲真菌病患者使用长脉宽Nd:YAG激光进行治疗,治疗参数：波长1064 nm,能量30 ～ 40 J/cm2,脉宽35 ms,光斑4 mm。观察疗效及不良反应,并根据不同感染菌种、临床类型、病甲位置对病例进行分组,采用SPSS17.0统计软件进行卡方检验比较不同分组间疗效、复发情况的差异。结果 共治疗79甲,随访至初次治疗后9个月,临床有效率为67.1%,真菌学有效率为73.4%,复发或再感染率为19.0%。红色毛癣菌组的临床疗效（χ2 = 10.913,P < 0.05）及真菌学疗效（χ2 = 13.532,P < 0.05）均优于其他真菌组,复发或再感染率低于其他真菌组（χ2 = 10.980,P < 0.05）,但与白念珠菌组比较这三方面的差异均无统计学意义。白色浅表甲真菌病（WSO）组的临床疗效优于远侧甲下真菌病（DLSO）组（χ2 = 11.935,P < 0.05）,而DLSO组的临床疗效又优于近端甲下真菌病（PSO）及全甲营养不良甲真菌病（TDO）组（χ2 = 17.515,P < 0.05）。根据病甲位置不同分类,第2 ～ 5指甲组的临床疗效优于拇指甲/第2 ～ 5趾甲组（χ2 = 13.437,P < 0.05）及拇趾甲组（χ2 = 10.595,P < 0.05）,而拇指甲/第2 ～ 5趾甲组与拇趾甲组相比临床疗效差异无统计学意义（χ2 = 3.030,P > 0.05）,它们的真菌学疗效及治疗后的复发或再感染率差异无统计学意义。治疗过程中除疼痛外未发生其他不良反应。结论 长脉宽Nd:YAG激光是治疗甲真菌病的一种安全有效的方法,其疗效受到感染菌种、临床类型、病甲位置的影响。     

A method for the determination of drug effectiveness in onychomycosis: Trials with ketoconazole and griseofulvin ultramicrosize

A new method for assessing drug effectiveness in onychomycosis is presented. It is based on the clinical experience when three systemic antifungal drugs (griseofulvin, thiabendazole, and ketoconazole) are used against onychomycosis. These drugs act clinically as a barrier to the invasion of the fungus toward the proximal areas of the nail plate. A monthly quantity of normal nail plate should be produced by a given subject after the administration of an effective dose of the antifungal being tested. This quantity is best measured at monthly intervals, and this in fact reflects the normal monthly nail plate growth for the individual. Although there is a slight variation among individuals, most normal healthy subjects grow 1.5 to 2 mm of nail plate per month from their large toenails and 3 to 4 mm of nail plate per month from their fingernails. Utilizing this quantitative system, ketoconazole and griseofulvin ultramicrosize were compared in the treatment of distal subungual onychomycosis by Trichophyton rubrum. In a double-blind study, sixteen patients were treated. It appears that both griseofulvin and ketoconazole can eradicate the episode of onychomycosis. One-year use of a topical antifungal cream after clinical cure of onychomycosis prevented reinfection in the 12-month follow-up period. The use of ketoconazole in long-term therapy may result in serious side effects and should be considered carefully prior to treatment.     

Onychomycosis by molds. Report of 78 cases

A retrospective study of onychomycohosis by molds was carried out during a 14-year period (1992-2005). All cases were clinically and mycologically proven (repetitive KOH and culture) and then each of the molds was identified. A total of 5,221 cases of onychomycosis were evaluated, 78 of which were molds (1.49%). Mean patient age was 44.1 years. 75/78 cases occurred in toenails. Associated factors were detected in 39/78 (50.0%) cases, with the major ones being: peripheral vascular disease, contact with soil, and trauma. The most frequent clinical presentation was distal and lateral subungual onychomycosis (DLSO), in 54/78 cases (69%). The most frequent causative agents were: Scopulariopsis brevicaulis in 34/78 cases and Aspergillus niger in 13/78 cases. Onychomycoses by molds are infrequent; in this study they accounted for 1.49% of cases. The clinical features are virtually similar to those caused by dermatophytes, which makes the clinicomycological tests necessary.     

Onychomycosis in central India: a clinicoetiologic correlation

BACKGROUND: Onychomycosis is mainly caused by dermatophytes, but yeasts and nondermatophyte molds have also been implicated, giving rise to diverse clinical presentations. The etiological agents of the disease may show geographic variation. The aim of the present study was to isolate the causative pathogens and to determine the various clinical patterns of onychomycosis in central India. METHODS: The study population comprised 90 patients with onychomycosis. Nail samples were collected for direct microscopic examination and culture. Clinical patterns were noted and correlated with causative pathogens. RESULTS: The male : female ratio was 3:1 and the mean age was 29.40 +/- 13.61 years. Fingernails were involved in 60%, toenails in 26.67% and both fingernails and toenails in 13.34% of the 90 patients. The clinical types noted were distolateral subungual onychomycosis (64.44%), total dystrophic onychomycosis (17.78%), proximal subungual onychomycosis with paronychia (12.2%), proximal subungual onychomycosis without paronychia (4.44%) and superficial white onychomycosis (1.11%). Dermatophytes were the most common pathogens isolated, being found in 24 patients (26.36%) [Tricophyton rubrum (23.07%), Tricophyton verrucosum (2.22%) and Epidermophyton floccosum (1.11%)], followed by Candida albicans, which was found in 22 patients (24.27%). Thirty-six (39.58%) nondermatophyte molds were isolated from 29 patients. Of these 29 cases, six were associated with Tricophyton rubrum, which was considered the primary pathogen. CONCLUSIONS: Distolateral subungual onychomycosis was the most common clinical presentation; however, total dystrophic onychomycosis and proximal subungual onychomycosis were not uncommon in this part of India. Tricophyton rubrum and Candida albicans were the major pathogens. The clinicoetiologic correlation revealed that a single pathogen could give rise to more than one clinical type.     

Ciclopirox nail lacquer for the treatment of onychomycosis: An open non-comparative study

Onychomycosis is a relatively common disease accounting for up to 50% of all nail disorders. Topical treatment, although less effective than systemic, is usually preferred by patients. Topical antifungal nail lacquers have been formulated to provide better delivery of the antifungal agent to the nail unit. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the efficacy and safety of ciclopirox nail lacquer in the treatment of onychomycosis. Patients suffering from distal and lateral subungual toenail onychomycosis (DLSO) and lateral subungual onychomycosis (LSO) were treated by ciclopirox nail lacquer once daily for 9 months. Every week the nail lacquer was removed using acetone. Clinical nail status, KOH examination and mycological culture were recorded by the same investigator at 0, 3, 6 and 9 months. Thirty-six patients completed the 9-month regimen. Trichophyton rubrum was the most common pathogen. At the end of the study, good improvement to complete cure was observed in 13 patients (36%), 12 patients showed only mild to moderate improvement and 11 patients (31%) had no clinical improvement. No adverse effects were noted throughout the treatment period. Ciclopirox nail lacquer seems to be slightly more effective than other topical modalities and could be used in patients who cannot or do not want systemic treatment.     

涎沫念珠菌引起的甲真菌病2例

报道2例涎沫念珠菌引起的甲真菌病，均为女性（31岁和39岁），临床表现类似，均为手指甲的远侧甲下甲真菌病伴甲分离，真菌直接镜检见芽孢和菌丝。     

The efficacy of fractional carbon dioxide (CO2) laser combined with terbinafine hydrochloride 1% cream for the treatment of onychomycosis

Background: Although systemic and topical antifungal agents are widely used to treat onychomycosis, oral medications can cause adverse effects and the efficacy of topical agents is not satisfying. Currently, laser treatment has been studied for its efficacy in the treatment of onychomycosis. Our study was aimed to evaluate the efficacy of fractional carbon dioxide (CO₂) laser treatment combined with terbinafine cream for 6 months in the treatment of onychomycosis and to analyze the influencing factors. Methods: A total of 30 participants (124 nails) with clinical and mycological diagnosis of onychomycosis received fractional CO₂ laser treatment at 2-week interval combined with terbinafine cream once daily for 6 months. The clinical efficacy rate (CER) was assessed from the percentage of fully normal-appearing nails or nails with ≤5% abnormal appearance, and the mycological clearance rate (MCR) was assessed from the percentage of nails with negative fungal microscopy. Results: The CER was evaluated at 3 time points: at the end of treatment (58.9%), at 1 month after the last treatment (63.5%), and at 3 months after the last treatment (68.5%). The MCRs at 1 month and 3 months after the last treatment were 77.4 and 74.2%, respectively. The evaluation of influencing factors showed significantly higher CER (p < 0.05) in nails of participants with age <50 years, distal lateral subungual onychomycosis (DLSO), superficial white onychomycosis (SWO), nail thickness <2 mm, affected first-to-fourth finger/toenails, Trichophyton rubrum, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes. All participants experienced tolerable mild burning sensation during laser treatment, but there were no other adverse reactions reported. Conclusions: Fractional CO₂ laser treatment combined with terbinafine cream for 6 months was an effective and safe method for the treatment of onychomycosis. There were 5 factors that positively influenced the treatment outcome: age, clinical type of onychomycosis, nail thickness, involved nail, and species of fungus.     

Nail involvement in pemphigus vulgaris

BACKGROUND: Involvement of the nail unit in pemphigus vulgaris (PV) is thought to be rare. OBJECTIVES: To determine the frequency of nail changes among patients with PV. METHODS: Nail changes were recorded in patients with PV and were analysed retrospectively. Biopsies were taken from the nail bed and nail matrix for histological and immunofluorescence observations. Microscopic (potassium hydroxide) examination and fungal culture were performed. RESULTS: Nail changes were present in 30 of 64 (47%) patients with PV. Sixteen patients had onychomycosis and 14 had nail changes due to PV. These included onychomadesis, discoloration, deformity, onychorrhexis, onycholysis, subungual haemorrhage, subungual hyperkeratosis and paronychia. Onychomycosis affected fingernails and toenails, but changes due to PV occurred only in fingernails, most commonly on the thumb and index finger. No connection was found between the patient's occupation and nail involvement, and there was no correlation with the severity or duration of PV. In a control group of 64 patients of similar sex and age, only two had non-specific fingernail changes. CONCLUSIONS: Nail changes in PV may be more frequent than previously thought.     

White superficial onychomycosis: epidemiological, clinical, and pathological study of 79 patients

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the epidemiology, responsible agents, clinical features, and outcome of white superficial onychomycosis (WSO). DESIGN: Retrospective study. SETTING: University hospital. PATIENTS: A total of 79 patients with WSO seen at the Department of Dermatology of Bologna University from 1994 to 2002. Responsible agents included Trichophyton interdigitale in 58 cases (73%), Trichophyton rubrum in 4 (5%), Fusarium species in 9 (11%), Aspergillus species in 5 (6%), and Acremonium strictum in 3 (3%). RESULTS: White superficial onychomycosis may have different clinical and epidemiological features. "Classic" WSO, characterized by superficial nail plate involvement, is usually due to Trichophyton mentagrophytes (var interdigitale), although Acremonium strictum or Onychocola canadiensis can sometimes be responsible. A deep and diffuse WSO, characterized by massive penetration of the nail plate by fungi, can be seen in nail infections by molds such as Fusarium species and Aspergillus species, or in nail infections by Trichophyton rubrum in healthy children and in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. CONCLUSIONS: Severity and spread of WSO is the result of complex host-parasite relationships. When dealing with a patient with WSO, we should always consider the causative organism and the host characteristics to choose the best therapeutic approach.     

广州地区慢性病毒性肝炎患者甲真菌病流行病学研究

目的 了解广州地区慢性病毒性肝炎（CVH）人群中甲真菌病的患病率、临床分型、菌种构成的现状及其发病与CVH的关系。方法 选取2005年11月至2006年10月在广州地区两家传染病防治机构门诊就诊或住院的CVH患者，对临床拟诊为甲真菌病的患者收集其甲屑做真菌镜检和培养，真菌学检查阳性者确诊为甲真菌病，计算其患病率、临床分型、菌种构成等指标。结果 共收集CVH患者995例，确诊为甲真菌病者116例，甲真菌病总患病率为11.66%，其中轻、中、重、极重度CVH人群的患病率分别为6.20%、8.59%、14.09%、19.67%；CVH病程0.5 ～ 9年、10 ～ 19年、20 ～ 29年、≥30年人群的甲真菌病患病率分别为7.09%、17.29%、19.13%、27.27%。临床分型主要为远端侧位甲下型（69.83%），其次为全甲营养不良型（14.66%）。菌种构成为皮肤癣菌占71.43%、酵母菌占21.43%、霉菌占7.14%，以红色毛癣菌最常见（42.86%）。结论 CVH人群中甲真菌病的患病率与CVH病情的严重程度及病程长短有关，临床分型以远端侧位甲下型多见，病原菌主要是皮肤癣菌，其中以红色毛癣菌最常见。     

Onychomycosis and the diagnostic significance of nail biopsy

Onychomycosis is the most common cause of deformed nails. It is often confused clinically with other nail diseases such as psoriasis. A cross sectional study was carried out in 120 clinically suspected onychomycosis patients to assess the diagnostic utility of nail unit histopathology. The majority of the patients were males (72.5%) in the age group of 20-40 years (55%). Involvement of fingernails alone (37.5%) was found to be more common than toenails (12.5%). Distal and lateral subungual onychomycosis [DLSO] (76.6%) was the predominant morphological type noted. Direct microscopy with 10% potassium hydroxide (KOH) preparation revealed fungal filaments in 82.5% of the cases. Mycological culture on Sabouraud's dextrose agar with and without cycloheximide indicated fungal isolates in 44% of the cases, with Trichophyton mentagrophytes being the most common isolate (38.3%). The combined approach with KOH preparation and culture showed the evidence of fungus in 103 cases (85.8%). Of the rest of the 17 cases in whom both these procedures failed to confirm a diagnosis, nail unit biopsy was carried out in 15 consenting patients. Fungal hyphae (better demonstrable on PAS staining) were evident in 14 cases (93.3%). Other histopathological features observed among these patients were subungual hyperkeratosis, neutrophilic infiltrate, parakeratosis, hemorrhage, and serum crusts. We concluded that histopathological examination of nails is a valuable diagnostic aid in onychomycosis, especially if routine parameters fail to establish a diagnosis.