The Korean American woman's nose: an in-depth nasal photogrammatic analysis

OBJECTIVES: To assess the differences in nasal anthropometric measurements between Korean American women and North American white women and to perform an in-depth nasal index calculation. METHODS: This anthropometric survey included a volunteer sample of Korean American women (n = 72) aged 18 to 35 years with Korean parents and no previous nasal surgery or trauma to the nose. Standardized and referenced frontal, lateral, and basal photographs of the nose were taken of the subjects and 22 standard anthropometric measurements of the nose were determined. Results were compared with published standards for North American white women. In addition, 18 nasal indices were calculated and compared with the published standards for North American white women. RESULTS: The Korean American woman's nose did not fit the neoclassic facial canons. Compared with North American white women, 20 of 22 nasal measurements in Korean American women were found to be significantly different. Nasal indices also revealed significant differences in 16 of the 18 that were calculated. The Korean American woman's nose exhibits less rotation, has a flatter dorsum, and is more flared at the alae, with less definition of the nasal tip. CONCLUSIONS: The average Korean American and North American white female nasal anthropometric measurements are very different. As cosmetic surgery becomes more popular among Asian Americans, our findings bolster the need for a broader view of facial analysis and transcultural aesthetics.     

Photogrammetric Facial Analysis of Attractive Korean Entertainers

Background  The authors have developed a new digital photogrammetric method of facial analysis known as balanced angular and proportional analysis (BAPA). Using BAPA, the authors analyzed the faces of attractive Korean entertainers. Methods  The BAPA approach involves 28 landmarks and 14 measurements (10 proportional and 4 angular measures). Standardized mean angular values of famous entertainers are referred to as recommended aesthetic mean angles (RAMA) and the mean proportional values as the recommended aesthetic mean proportions (RAMP). In this study, 30 frontal views of famous Korean entertainers (15 men and 15 women) were collected from Internet Web pages, and the data analyzed using V-ceph. A t test (with the significance level set at a p value of 0.05) was performed to analyze male versus female comparisons. Results  Significant between-group differences (p < 0.05) were found for P-lower face, P-eye height, P-lip, P-interangle, and the mandibular contour in the frontal views. Famous Korean female entertainers differ from famous male entertainers. The women have a shorter lower face, larger eyes, smaller lips, and a more slender and oval shape of the mandibular soft tissue contour. Conclusions  The authors insist that facial analysis should take into consideration racial, ethnic, and gender differences. The BAPA approach is a new practical and simple method for photogrammetric facial analysis. Using the authors’ method, more advanced and automated computer systems for analyzing human faces may be developed.     

Proportionality in Asian and North American Caucasian Faces Using Neoclassical Facial Canons as Criteria

Nine projective linear measurements were taken to determine morphometric differences of the face among healthy young adult Chinese, Vietnamese, and Thais (60 in each group) and to assess the validity of six neoclassical facial canons in these populations. In addition, the findings in the Asian ethnic groups were compared to the data of 60 North American Caucasians. The canons served as criteria for determining the differences between the Asians and Caucasians. In neither Asian nor Caucasian subjects were the three sections of the facial profile equal. The validity of the five other facial canons was more frequent in Caucasians (range: 16.7–36.7%) than in Asians (range: 1.7–26.7%). Horizontal measurement results were significantly greater in the faces of the Asians (en–en, al–al, zy–zy) than in their white counterparts; as a result, the variation between the classical proportions and the actual measurements was significantly higher among Asians (range: 90–100%) than Caucasians (range: 13.3–48%). The dominant characteristics of the Asian face were a wider intercanthal distance in relation to a shorter palpebral fissure, a much wider soft nose within wide facial contours, a smaller mouth width, and a lower face smaller than the forehead height. In the absence of valid anthropometric norms of craniofacial measurements and proportion indices, our results, based on quantitative analysis of the main vertical and horizontal measurements of the face, offers surgeons guidance in judging the faces of Asian patients in preparation for corrective surgery.     

Facial Aesthetic Preferences Among Asian Women: Are All Oriental Asians the Same?

Background Oriental Asians have specific aesthetic priorities. However, a common perception is that expectations from cosmetic surgery are similar. The possibility of different beauty criteria between seemingly similar appearing oriental Asians is not recognized. This investigation aimed to identify where a difference in aesthetic values exists between various oriental Asians. Methods The study was based on a survey regarding facial aesthetics conducted with two selected groups: 50 Korean and 50 Japanese women. Preferences regarding the periorbital region, nose, lip features, and overall harmony of the face were surveyed. Results Significant differences in preferred beauty features were identified, especially with regard to the periorbital region. Although a supratarsal crease was found to be desirable in both groups, Koreans preferred a larger fold paralleling the lid margin, with elimination of the epicanthal fold. Japanese women desired thinner lips, with more delicate facial features. Conclusion The results demonstrate that there is a difference between oriental Asian aesthetic values. Plastic surgeons should be sensitive to different ethnic concepts of beauty and appreciate a range of values rather than assume that all Asians simply prefer “occidentalization.”     

The aesthetics of hair restoration

The hairline and frontal hair volume are frequently overlooked aspects of attractive facial proportion and overall facial aesthetics. The author contends that patient benefit from hair restoration surgery is significant, and these procedures should be routinely considered as part of a complete facial rejuvenation.     

Facial attractiveness and abnormality of nasal reconstruction patients and controls assessed by laypersons.

BACKGROUND: The goal of nasal reconstruction after a partial or total amputation is to achieve a nasal appearance as natural and normal as possible. It is assumed that laypersons' opinion on facial appearance could affect patient satisfaction or self-concept. The aim of this study was to assess laypersons' opinions on aesthetic outcome of nasal reconstruction. This was compared with the opinion of a professional panel. Second, the effect of informing laypersons about the previous nasal reconstruction of patients on their assessment of facial attractiveness and abnormality was studied. Third, the effects of individual facial features on the assessment of facial attractiveness and abnormality were determined. METHODS: A total of 39 consecutive patients treated between November 2001 and May 2005 for (sub) total nasal defects were included, together with a control group of 39 persons without a facial deformity. A group of 20 randomly selected laypersons (10 men and 10 women) assessed facial appearance and abnormality of all 78 persons using standardised colour slides, not knowing who was a patient and who control. Two weeks later they were informed about the true study design and the same questions were asked. In addition, they assessed final treatment results of 39 patients. RESULTS: No differences existed between assessment of aesthetic outcome after nasal reconstruction by laypersons and professionals (54% good to excellent). Patients were perceived significantly less attractive and more abnormal than controls. Prior knowledge had a significant positive effect on mean facial attractiveness and abnormality scores. High positive correlations were found between facial attractiveness and abnormality scores and the frequency of the item 'nothing in particular', meaning if no particular facial feature was judged to be striking, a face was perceived more attractive and less abnormal. CONCLUSION: Nasal reconstruction patients were perceived significantly less attractive and more abnormal by laypersons than controls. Since faces without striking features were judged to be more attractive, the goal of nasal reconstruction would not only be to create a nose as normal as possible, but also as inconspicuous as possible.     

Objective assessment of facial asymmetry in rhinoplasty patients

OBJECTIVES: To determine the incidence and nature of facial asymmetry in patients referred for consideration of aesthetic rhinoplasty and to assess whether objective anthropometric facial measurements correlate with subjective perceptions of asymmetry. DESIGN: Two independent observers measured facial features, including midline to medial and lateral canthi, tragus, ala, and oral commissure distances, in 234 prerhinoplasty surgical photographs. The photographs were rated by 10 independent observers for a global "first impression" of facial symmetry, and the relationship between anthropometric measurement and subjective perception of facial symmetry was explored with logistic regression. RESULTS: Objectively, 97% of patients had significant degrees of facial asymmetry, with the midline to ala distances showing the most variations and the midline to oral commissures showing the least variations. Subjectively, 38% of results were perceived as asymmetrical, with the degree of midline to lateral alar margin asymmetry being an independent predictor of the perception of facial asymmetry on binary logistic regression (P<.003). CONCLUSIONS: A significant correlation was found between the degree of objective facial asymmetry, particularly in anthropometric nasal measurements, and the subjective perception of a face as asymmetrical in patients requesting aesthetic rhinoplasty. This relationship may be a factor in patients who request rhinoplasty and should be explored in this patient group.     

Aesthetics of facial skeletal surgery

Orthognathic surgical planning should derive primarily from aesthetic considerations, and these should be based not on rigid cephalometric and anthropometric norms but on the surgeon's aesthetic sense. The historic goals of orthognathic surgery have addressed both stability and aesthetics. Stability relates to establishing a healthy, functional occlusion; aesthetic goals have focused on normalizing facial balance and proportions. With the advent of rigid fixation and bone graft substitutes, sacrificing facial aesthetics to attain stability and achieve a normal occlusion is no longer necessary. Orthognathic surgery now can be envisioned truly as aesthetic surgery.     

Geography of the nose: a morphometric study

The noses of 34 attractive young North American Caucasian women were analyzed quantitatively, based on 19 nasal measurements (6 single and 7 paired linear measurements, 3 angles, and 3 inclinations) and 15 craniofacial measurements (10 linear measurements and 5 inclinations) taken directly from the face of the women. The relationship between the nasal measurements was studied in 16 proportion indices and the relationship between the nasal and the other craniofacial measurements in 13 interareal indices. The findings were also compared with those in 21 women with below-average faces. Two types of facial harmony disruption were identified: disharmony, a normal index with a visually apparent failure of proportionality, and disproportion, an index value outside of the normal range. The percentage of disharmonies and disproportions was significantly higher in the group of 21 women with below-average faces. The study revealed a wide variety of "ideal" noses. Only a small portion of the measurements (12%) and proportion indices (7%) were at the mean value. At least two-thirds of the interareal proportion indices were located in the mean +/- 1 standard deviation portion of the normal range. Only about one-fifth of the interareal indices were disharmonious and 2.8% disproportionate. The disproportions were more areal in the attractive faces and more interareal in the below-average faces. The greatest disproportion in the attractive face was the moderately short columella in relation to the tip protrusion and in the below-average face the long nasal bridge related to the upper-lip height. Disproportions were associated with combinations of normal and abnormal measurements, or with two normal measurements of unequal quality, which resulted in a slightly smaller disfigurement. Analysis of ethnic and racial differences showed the soft nose as the main feature of the most characteristic differences. The study revealed that the key to restoration of facial harmony is the renewal of the uniformity of proportion index qualities by elimination disharmonies and/or disproportionate relationships.     

Geography of the nose: A morphometric study

The noses of 34 attractive young North American Caucasian women were analyzed quantitatively, based on 19 nasal measurements (6 single and 7 paired linear measurements, 3 angles, and 3 inclinations) and 15 craniofacial measurements (10 linear measurements and 5 inclinations) taken directly from the face of the women. The relationship between the nasal measurements was studied in 16 proportion indices and the relationship between the nasal and the other craniofacial measurements in 13 interareal indices. The findings were also compared with those in 21 women with below-average faces. Two types of facial harmony disruption were identified:disharmony, a normal index with a visually apparent failure of proportionality, anddisproportion, an index value outside of the normal range. The percentage of disharmonies and disproportions was significantly higher in the group of 21 women with below-average faces. The study revealed a wide variety of ideal noses. Only a small portion of the measurements (12%) and proportion indices (7%) were at the mean value. At least two-thirds of the interareal proportion indices were located in the mean ±1 standard deviation portion of the normal range. Only about one-fifth of the interareal indices were disharmonious and 2.8% disproportionate. The disproportions were more areal in the attractive faces and more interareal in the below-average faces. The greatest disproportion in the attractive face was the moderately short columella in relation to the tip protrusion and in the below-average face the long nasal bridge related to the upper-lip height. Disproportions were associated with combinations of normal and abnormal measurements, or with two normal measurements of unequal quality, which resulted in a slightly smaller disfigurement. Analysis of ethnic and racial differences showed the soft nose as the main feature of the most characteristic differences. The study revealed that the key to restoration of facial harmony is the renewal of the uniformity of proportion index qualities by elimination disharmonies and/or disproportionate relationships.Presented in part to the VIIIth Congress of the International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, Madrid, September 17, 1985     

Facial attractiveness: visual impact of symmetry increases significantly towards the midline

Symmetry is thought to be a major prerequisite for an attractive face. Many faces are not symmetric, yet are still regarded as beautiful. What role, then, does asymmetry play in the perception of beauty? We studied the assessment of computer-manipulated images by independent judges (n = 200-250): part A: nevi located at different positions; part B: standardized changes of the orbital region. The results showed that slight lateral orbital and facial asymmetry does not impair attractiveness at all and that asymmetries close to the midline are significantly less attractive than those affecting the lateral aspect of the face (P < 0.001). A single nevus which is located laterally on the face is significantly more attractive than a nevus close to the midline (P < 0.001). Faces with a completely symmetric bilateral pair of nevi in the same lateral positions (perceived as attractive when alone), received the worst ratings (P < 0.001). Symmetry is a characteristic of the attractive face, but there are exceptions to the rule. Under certain conditions symmetry can be completely unattractive. The visual impact of symmetry on the perception of beauty increases significantly when approaching the midline.     

A comparison of aesthetic proportions between the healthy Caucasian nose and the aesthetic ideal.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The aim of septorhinoplasty is to create a nose that is aesthetically pleasing to the patient and to maintain nasal function. Although a small number of population cohort studies have been performed on the ethnic nose, little is known of the aesthetics standards of nasal proportions in the general Caucasian population. The aim of this study was to establish parameters of the average nose in the healthy population and to compare them with those of the aesthetic ideals. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Ethical approval was obtained to recruit a cohort of staff and students from the medical school. Two photographs were taken: anterior and right lateral. The following measurements were made: intercanthal width, alar width, length of the nose (nasion-pronasion length), naso-labial angle, nasal tip projection, naso-facial angle and naso-frontal angle. These parameters were compared with published aesthetic ideals. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Aesthetic nasal proportions of 50 healthy Caucasians were examined from a cohort of 57 volunteers. Results showed that the average nose did not conform to neo-classical facial canons. The alar width (average 3.6 cm) was significantly wider than the intercanthal width (average 3.0 cm, p<0.05). The nasal width-length ratio was also greater suggesting that the cohort average was shorter and wider than the aesthetic ideal. The Baum ratio was 2.5:1, indicating that the average nasal tip was more projected that the aesthetic ideal (2.8:1). The naso-frontal and naso-facial angles are both more obtuse, and in profile the average nose overall appeared more prominent, as a result of the reduced forehead projection. The only parameter where there appeared to be consistency between the average and the ideal nose was the naso-labial angle. This study shows that many aesthetic parameters from a cohort of healthy subjects differ from the widely used aesthetic standards. Rhinoplasty surgeons should, therefore, give thought to the frame of reference used when discussing aesthetic objectives with their patients.     

Subjective and objective facial attractiveness: ratings and gender differences in objective appraisals of female faces

Background: Studies have not adequately compared subjective/objective ratings of female dermatology patients including patients presenting for cosmetic procedures. Objective: To examine objective versus subjective facial attractiveness ratings, demographic variables, and how men versus women judge female facial attractiveness. Methods: Sixty-five women (mean 42 years) presenting to a dermatology office. Subjects filled out a demographic and attractiveness questionnaire and were photographed. Four judges (2 male and 2 female) rated the photographs on a predefined 1 to 7 scale. Results: Mean subjective rating (subjects rating themselves) was 4.85 versus 3.61 for objective rating (judges rating subjects) (p<0.001). The mean age of subjects self-rating (subjective rating) who rated themselves in the 5 to 7 range was 39 years; the mean age of subjects self-rating (subjective rating) who rated themselves in the 3 to 4 range was 45 years (p=0.053). The mean age of subjects objectively rated by judges in the 5 to 7 range was 33 years; the mean age of subjects objectively rated by judges in the 3 to 4 range was 43 years (p<0.001); and the mean age of subjects objectively rated by judges in the 1 to 2 range was 50 years (p<0.001). The mean subjective rating (subjects rating themselves) for married women was 4.55 versus 5.27 for unmarried women (p=0.007); the mean objective rating (judges rating subjects) was 3.22 versus 4.15 (p<0.001). The mean objective rating by male judges was 3.09 versus 4.12 for female judges (p<0.001) Conclusion: Female patients presenting to a dermatology office rated themselves more attractive than did judges who viewed photographs of the subjects. Age and marital status were significant factors, and male judges rated attractiveness lower than female judges. Limitations of the study, implications, and suggestions for future research directions are discussed.     

Ursachen von Attraktivität und ihre Bedeutung für die ästhetische Medizin

As part of analysis in the field of research into attractiveness, a morphing software is able to generate a prototype of the attractive female face. The face is the result of a consensus on particular features of attractiveness such as darker skin tone, slim face, long eyelashes, high cheek-bones, narrow nose, full lips, etc., which work together harmoniously. Those female faces evaluated as particularly attractive correspond to the scheme of childlike characteristics. This phenomenon can be explained by the evolutionary history of man: youthful and healthy women have always been preferred by men as more suitable partners for reproduction. For thousands of years, therefore, women have attempted to emphasise the characteristics of youth: be it by colouring hair, lengthening eyelashes, emphasising eyes, plucking eyebrows or removing body hair. For some time now, aesthetic surgery has been offering new opportunities in this direction, and is increasingly used and accepted. A change in norms and values is under way that will lead in the future to aesthetic surgery being seen as a matter of course, the use of which will be associated with greater social prestige.     

Anthropometrics and art in the aesthetics of women's faces

Attractiveness of the face is not an abstract conception but a quantitatively well-defined anatomic quality. Harmony, disharmony, and disproportion of the face depend on the quality of the relationships between individual measurements of the craniofacial complex. The statistical expression of this relationship is the proportion index. A proportionate face, one with its proportion indices located within the normal range (mean +/- 2 SD), is healthy but not necessarily attractive. In an attractive face the proportion indices are in an optimal relationship, statistically in the range of mean +/- 1 SD. The existence of such a range ensures the great variability possible even among attractive faces. Disproportion, or even mild disharmony in a sensitive area of the face (orbits, nose, lips), reduces the aesthetic quality of the face. Restoration of harmony demands correction of the disproportionate relationships, which is achieved by appropriate changes in the measurements. Norms of measurements and proportion indices found in attractive faces serve as guides in calculating changes. Ethnic differences in North American Caucasian women proved not to be of major concern when planning aesthetic correction.     

Circles of prominence: a new theory on facial aesthetics

OBJECTIVE: To elucidate key elements of facial aesthetics through a new hypothesis called the circles of prominence. DESIGN: In this subjective survey, 32 persons in the medical field rated frontal-view photographs of 20 subjects in 5 categories on a 0-to-100 scale, 0 representing the most unaesthetic rating, 100, the most aesthetically pleasing. The study was conducted in an academic setting, and the subject photographs were of 9 women (aged 27-65 years) from a clinical setting and 11 women whose pictures appeared in entertainment magazines. Each subject's eyes, nose, mouth, and chin were subjectively rated for their aesthetic quality. A general rating was also given for the subject's face as a whole. The subject's faces were then analyzed and measured based on the circles of prominence theory. A total of 52 measurements were chosen for the analysis. All raters' numbers for each anatomic unit and the face in general for each subject were averaged. The theoretical measurements were also averaged for each unit. The percentage of the ideal for the face in general was calculated based on weighted averages of the measurements from the individual units of each subject. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to determine whether a significant difference existed between the raters' averages and the averages measured based on the facial analysis. Spearman rank coefficient correlation was used to determine if a significant correlation existed between those means. RESULTS: We set statistical significance at P相似文献   

Aesthetic Analysis of the Ideal Female Leg

The aesthetics of the attractive leg are dependent on three principle factors: length, circumference, and shape. Advances in surgical techniques and instrumentation have the ability to predict an aesthetic result in contouring the leg. However, because of patient variability and differing opinions of the surgeon, the leg aesthetics criteria and thus surgical goals have not been clearly defined. We performed an evaluation of Taiwan Chinese female leg aesthetics by using two study groups. Popular fashion models were evaluated and compared with our attractive female population. We noticed subjectively that there are similar leg shapes in both groups. Criteria that contribute to the aesthetics of the attractive legs can be used as guides for doctors and patients to achieve a more aesthetic and predictable leg contour.