Neurovascular trauma in athletes

Injuries to neurovascular structures are not the most common injuries seen in athletes and for this reason may often be overlooked. Additionally, diagnosis and management may be more difficult because of inexperience with these injuries. The majority of acute sports-related neurovascular injuries are associated with contact sports such as rugby, wrestling, ice hockey, and especially football. These injuries most commonly occur about the shoulder girdle and brachial plexus, with "burners" syndrome being the most common. Less common injuries include thoracic outlet syndrome, effort-induced thrombosis, axillary artery occlusion, and peripheral nerve injuries, as well as compression syndromes involving the axillary, suprascapular, and long thoracic nerves.     

Top five rules to avoid neurovascular injury during total shoulder arthroplasty

Prevention of neurovascular injuries during approaches for shoulder arthroplasty involves general knowledge of the anatomical course of adjacent neurovascular structures and their proximity to various landmarks. This allows the surgeon to navigate about the shoulder while protecting or circumventing structures known to be at risk during a particular surgical approach. Adjunctive devices and monitoring methods can be helpful in difficult and even routine cases to minimize the incidence of nerve injuries. Most important is a thorough initial physical examination with documentation of neurovascular status, review of prior operative notes, and pursuing additional studies as deemed necessary.     

Neurovascular injuries in shoulder trauma

Although the incidence of neurovascular injury following shoulder trauma is relatively uncommon, a missed diagnosis may have serious clinical ramifications for the patient, and potential medical and legal implications for the treating surgeon. When treating these injuries with closed reduction or surgery the neural and vascular structures are at risk, and therefore a detailed and thorough baseline neurovascular status is essential before treatment. We suggest a systematic clinical approach when presented with trauma to the shoulder. This article provides an easily reproducible yet comprehensive approach to the diagnosis, identification, and treatment of neurovascular injuries following shoulder trauma.     

Co-existing fractures of the proximal humerus and humeral shaft without shoulder dislocation – a rare injury

Multiple fractures of the humerus are a rare injury and usually associated with high-energy trauma. We report an unusual injury with co-existing fractures of the proximal humerus and humeral shaft without shoulder dislocation. We discuss our experience in the diagnosis and treatment of a 39-year-old man with co-existing fractures of proximal humerus and ipsilateral humeral shaft with radial nerve deficit. He was successfully managed with open reduction and fixation of the fractures. At follow-up 1 year after injury, he is back at work and has a good range of shoulder movements. The radial nerve injury is showing signs of recovery. In high-energy trauma to the shoulder, unusual fracture patterns with associated neurovascular deficits may be seen and this case report describes our experience with one such rare injury.     

Scapulothoracic dissociation: evaluation and management

Scapulothoracic dissociation is an infrequent injury with potentially devastating outcomes. Knowledge of this injury is based on small patient series and case reports. The aim of this article is to review the evaluation, management and functional outcomes following scapulothoracic dissociation. Often caused by high traction forces applied to the shoulder girdle, there is a complete loss of the scapulothoracic articulation with lateral scapular displacement and intact skin. This is frequently associated with muscular, ligamentous and osseous injuries to the shoulder girdle, vascular injuries to the subclavian, or axillary, vessels and brachial plexus lesions. In the acute setting, the timely diagnosis of the associated neurovascular injuries is crucial. Severe neurovascular and soft tissue compromise often requires an early above-elbow amputation. Further, complete brachial plexus avulsions are associated with a limited potential for functional recovery.     

Traumatic scapulothoracic dissociation

Scapulothoracic dissociation is an infrequent injury with a potentially devastating outcome. The diagnosis is based on clinical and radiographic findings of forequarter disruption. These include massive soft tissue swelling of the shoulder, displacement of the scapula and neurovascular injuries (brachial plexus, subclavian artery and osseous-ligamentous injuries). The mechanism of injury appears to be the delivery of severe rotational force sheering the shoulder girdle from its chest wall attachments around the scapula, shoulder joint and at the clavicle. Early recognition of the entity and aggressive treatment are crucial. Outcome is not dependent on management of the arterial injury, but rather on the severity of the neurological deficit.     

Ballistic diaphyseal forearm fractures result in high incidence of neurovascular injury and compartment syndrome but have low rates of early infection: A single level I trauma center experience

IntroductionBallistic injuries to the upper extremity represent a small subset of injuries, and there is little data to provide guidance on management and outcomes. The purpose of this study is to assess the incidence of neurovascular injuries, compartment syndrome, and early postoperative infection, as well as patient and injury factors predictive of neurovascular injury following ballistic fractures of the forearm.Patients and methodsA retrospective review of operatively treated ballistic forearm fractures at a single level I trauma center between 2010 and 2022 was performed. Thirty-three patients with 36 forearm fractures were identified. Only diaphyseal injuries in patients greater than 18 years old were included. Medical and radiographic records were reviewed to identify pre-injury patient-specific factors, including age, sex, smoking status, and history of diabetes. Injury characteristics, including the type of firearm used, forearm fracture location, and any associated neurologic or vascular injury, as well as compartment syndrome, were collected and analyzed. Short-term outcomes such as post-operative infection and recovery of neurologic function were also collected and analyzed.ResultsThe median age was 27 years (range: 18–62), with a majority of male patients (78.8%, n = 26). 4 patients (12.1%) sustained high-energy injuries. 4 patients (12.1%) were found to have compartment syndrome pre-operatively or intra-operatively. 11 patients (33.3%) had nerve palsies postoperatively with 8 patients (24.2%) continuing to have nerve palsies at their final follow-up (mean follow-up= 149.9 +/- 187.2 days). The median length of stay was 4 days. There were no patients with infection at follow-up.ConclusionBallistic forearm fractures are complex injuries and can result in severe complications such as neurovascular injury and compartment syndrome. As such, a comprehensive evaluation and appropriate management of ballistic forearm fractures are essential to minimize the risk of severe complications and optimize patient outcomes. In our experience, when treated operatively, these injuries have a low rate of infection.     

Ankle injury manipulation before or after X-ray – Does it influence success?

Many acute, deformed ankle injuries are manipulated in the Emergency Department (ED) before X-rays are taken to confirm the nature of the injury. This often occurs in the absence of neurovascular or skin compromise without consideration of other possible injuries such as talar, subtalar or calcaneal injuries. We believe that an inappropriate manipulation of an unknown injury pattern may place the patient at increased risk. A balance needs to be struck between making the correct diagnosis and preventing any further neurovascular or skin compromise.     

Pediatric shoulder trauma

Pediatric shoulder trauma is relatively uncommon. Injuries requiring surgical intervention are even rarer. However, it is important for the practicing orthopaedic surgeon to differentiate nonoperative injuries from the urgent and potentially operative injuries. Missing such an injury in the pediatric population could be potentially life threatening or lead to long-term disability. Posterior sternoclavicular dislocations should be differentiated from medial clavicular physeal injuries and promptly reduced. Open fractures or neurovascular threatening fractures should be attended to immediately. Severely displaced proximal physeal humerus fractures in the older child often have a better long-term outcome after anatomic reduction. Finally, although glenohumeral dislocations, once reduced, are not life threatening or limb threatening, they do have a very high incidence of recurrence in adolescent patients. This should be kept in mind when formulating the treatment plan. If these overall treatment recommendations and plans are adhered to, the majority of pediatric shoulder trauma will result in a good outcome.     

Axillary nerve neurotization with the anterior deltopectoral approach in brachial plexus injuries

Combined neurotization of both axillary and suprascapular nerves in shoulder reanimation has been widely accepted in brachial plexus injuries, and the functional outcome is much superior to single nerve transfer. This study describes the surgical anatomy for axillary nerve relative to the available donor nerves and emphasize the salient technical aspects of anterior deltopectoral approach in brachial plexus injuries. Fifteen patients with brachial plexus injury who had axillary nerve neurotizations were evaluated. Five patients had complete avulsion, 9 patients had C5, six patients had brachial plexus injury pattern, and one patient had combined axillary and suprascapular nerve injury. The long head of triceps branch was the donor in C5,6 injuries; nerve to brachialis in combined nerve injury and intercostals for C5‐T1 avulsion injuries. All these donors were identified through the anterior approach, and the nerve transfer was done. The recovery of deltoid was found excellent (M5) in C5,6 brachial plexus injuries with an average of 134.4° abduction at follow up of average 34.6 months. The shoulder recovery was good with 130° abduction in a case of combined axillary and suprascapular nerve injury. The deltoid recovery was good (M3) in C5‐T1 avulsion injuries patients with an average of 64° shoulder abduction at follow up of 35 months. We believe that anterior approach is simple and easy for all axillary nerve transfers in brachial plexus injuries. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery, 2012.     

Injury patterns and the role of tendons in protecting neurovascular structures in wrist injuries

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to evaluate the anatomical features of injured structures, investigate the protection provided by the specific tendon of each corresponding important neurovascular structure (radial artery, median nerve, and ulnar nerve/artery) and to compare the results among the three categories of wrist injuries.MethodsThis study included 114 patients who underwent primary repair for damaged wrist structures; 40 patients sustained accidental damage without intention (group 1), 40 had self-inflicted damage (group 2), and 34 patients had a stab or penetrating wound caused by a sharp instrument during a conflict or violent event involving another person (group 3). The basic demographic factors, distribution pattern, area, and depth of the injured structures were investigated and compared. The barrier roles of the flexor carpi radialis (FCR) for the radial artery, palmaris longus (PL) for the median nerve, and flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU) for the ulnar nerve were estimated.ResultsIn group 1, FCU injury was the most common single-structure injury. In group 2, PL ± median nerve injuries were the most common. Multiple-structure injuries involving more than five structures occurred more frequently in group 3 than in the other groups. FCU ± ulnar nerve injuries were more common in group 3 than in the other groups. Radial-side structures were injured most frequently in group 3, and central-side injuries occurred most frequently in groups 1 and 2. Superficial- and middle-layer injuries occurred at similar frequencies among the three groups. Particularly, deep-layer injuries were most weakly related to group 2 injuries. The barrier effects of the FCR, PL, and FCU were confirmed, respectively.ConclusionsWrist soft tissue injuries showed particular patterns of injured structures and depths according to the injury mechanism. These patterns included features such as single-structure injuries and the locations and depths of multiple-structure injuries with or without neurovascular injuries. In addition, the roles of FCR, PL, and FCU in protecting important wrist neurovascular structures were confirmed.Level of evidenceTherapeutic III     

Prevalence of associated injuries after anterior shoulder dislocation: a prospective study

Purpose

Anterior shoulder dislocation can be associated with many lesions such as Bankart lesions, rotator cuff tears (RCT), Hill-Sachs lesions or greater tuberosity fractures. It has been documented that early management of the associated injury affords better recovery of shoulder function. The aim of this study was to highlight the incidence of associated injuries after anterior shoulder dislocation.

Methods

A total of 240 patients with traumatic anterior glenohumeral dislocations were subjected to complete history taking, neurovascular assessment and pre-reduction plain X-ray. An X-ray was taken immediately after reduction. Ultrasonography (US) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were done within one week after reduction in all patients. Nerve conduction studies were ordered for any patient with suspected nerve injury.

Results

Associated lesions were reported in 144 (60 %) patients. RCT was the most common injury (67 cases). It was isolated in 34 patients (14.15 %), while it was combined with other lesions in 33 cases (13.75 %). Axillary nerve injury was encountered in 38 patients, of them 8 (3.33 %) were isolated and 30 (12.5 %) were combined. Greater tuberosity fracture was found in 37 patients, of them 15 (6.25 %) were combined with axillary nerve injury, and in the other 22 patients (9.17 %) the fracture was isolated. All cases with Hill-Sachs and Bankart lesion were combined lesions with no isolated cases. There was a significant relation between the incidence of associated injuries and age, mechanism of injury and the affected side.

Conclusions

Lesions associated with traumatic anterior glenohumeral dislocations are more frequent than expected. Thorough clinical examination and detailed imaging including US and MRI are mandatory to avoid a missed diagnosis.

     

Brachial Plexopathy/Nerve Root Avulsion in a Football Player: The Role of Electrodiagnostics

Electromyography (EMG) studies are a useful tool in anatomical localization of peripheral nerve and brachial plexus injuries. They are especially helpful in distinguishing between brachial plexopathy and nerve root injuries where surgical intervention may be indicated. EMG can also assist in providing prognostic information after nerve injury as well as after nerve repair. In this case report, a football player presented with weakness in his right upper limb after a traction/traumatic injury to the right brachial plexus. EMG studies revealed evidence of both pre- and postganglionic injury to multiple cervical roots. The injury was substantial enough to cause nerve root avulsions involving the C6 and C7 levels. Surgical referral led to nerve grafts targeted at regaining function in shoulder abduction and elbow flexion. After surgery, the patient's progress was monitored utilizing EMG to assist in identifying true axonal regeneration.     

Iatrogenic injury to the accessory nerve.

We describe two patients with uncommon causes of iatrogenic injuries and review the anatomy, presentation, possibilities of repair, and results. The incidence of such nerve injuries during lymph node biopsies is 3%-10%, but the diagnosis is often delayed. Symptoms are shoulder pain and inability to abduct the arm beyond the horizontal plane. Surgical repair may improve function and pain and should be performed early, preferably within six months, but prevention of nerve injury is most important.     

Patella dislocation association with drop foot

All limb injuries should be examined with complete documentation of neurovascular assessment as they are often ignored in the busy emergency department setup. This may lead to delay in such diagnosis during the treatment of limb injuries at a follow-up in orthopaedic clinics. Early diagnosis can help orthopaedic team to investigate and start treatment which may help in the recovery of such neurovascular injuries. We report a case of missed neurovascular assessment in the emergency department on a patellar dislocation of a young person leading to foot drop and sensory numbness in the deep peroneal nerve distribution, which improved completely within three and a half months with conservative treatment. This is also the first reported case of foot drop in association with patellar dislocation.     

Shoulder dislocations in patients older than 40 years of age

Shoulder dislocations in patients over 40 years of age are common and are frequently associated with serious injuries to adjacent structures. Associated injuries such as brachial plexus injury, rotator cuff tear, axillary artery injury, fractures about the shoulder, and recurrent dislocation can make shoulder dislocations challenging problems for the clinician. Early diagnosis and treatment of associated injuries and treatment complications are the mainstays in prevention of morbidity and, even, mortality.     

Open scapulothoracic dissociation with intact neurovascular status in a child

A case of open scapulothoracic dissociation with intact neurovascular status in an 8-year-old girl is reported. Scapulothoracic dissociation is a rare injury. Most cases present with significant soft tissue disruption in the shoulder region secondary to separation of the scapula from the thorax, and involve major vascular and brachial plexus injuries. This case report illustrates that an obvious roentgenographic scapulothoracic dissociation may be seen without any neurovascular deficit in a child. Successful treatment, with anatomical repair of the muscles and stabilization of the scapula, is described.     

Anterior knee dislocation with ipsilateral open tibial shaft fracture: a 5-year clinical follow-up of a professional athlete

Traumatic dislocation of the knee joint is an uncommon complex, multiple ligamentous injury resulting from a high-energy trauma. Significant lack of functions can be seen because of both early and late complications of these injuries such as popliteal artery disruption, peroneal nerve injury, persistent instability and posttraumatic arthritis. Therefore, the emergency surgery is necessary due to possibility of neurovascular compromise and limb loss. Controversies over operative versus closed immobilization of traumatic complex, multiple ligamentous knee injury are still debated. We report a case of traumatic anterior dislocation of the right knee with an ipsilateral tibial shaft fracture in association with right popliteal artery occlusion of a professional athlete who was returned to his sports activity by surgical treated tibia fracture and conservative treatment of the knee dislocation.     

40岁以后肩关节脱位伴肩袖撕裂治疗

目的：对40岁以后中年肩关节脱位和合并肩袖撕裂观察各种手术治疗结果。对象及方法：选肩关节脱位而入院后发现合并肩袖撕裂患者12例，患者年龄为42—67岁，其中2例有腋神经损伤伴大结节骨折。12例均有肩袖撕裂，其中8例广泛撕裂，3例中等撕裂，1例轻度撕裂。结果：肩关节脱位伴肩袖撕裂行肩袖缝合术除伴2例腋神经损伤者外，10例用UCLA肩关节功能评定，评价时术后肩关节功能良好。结论：中年以上肩关节脱位时需用关节镜明确诊断，有腋神经损伤合并肩袖撕裂者需合适的肩袖缝合及腋神经康复治疗。     

Patient outcome after surgical management of an accessory nerve injury.

OBJECTIVE: This study assessed patient outcome following surgical reconstruction of the accessory nerve after an iatrogenic injury. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective chart review of 8 patients was performed. RESULTS: There were 3 men and 5 women in the study, and the mean time between injury and nerve graft/repair surgery was 5 months. Four injuries were sustained during a lymph node biopsy. Electromyography revealed a complete accessory nerve injury in all cases. In 6 cases, a nerve graft was required (mean length, 3.6 cm), and in 2 cases, a direct nerve repair was possible. The trapezius muscle was successfully reinnervated in all cases. In total, full shoulder abduction was achieved in 6 cases; in the remaining 2 cases, the patients achieved shoulder abduction to 90 degrees. CONCLUSION: Functional deficit after accessory nerve injury is significant. Nerve graft/repair reconstruction reliably yields a satisfactory result, providing good scapular rotation and thus good shoulder function.