The community pharmacy setting for diabetes prevention: A mixed methods study in people with ‘pre-diabetes’

BackgroundDiabetes Prevention Programs (DPPs) comprising intensive lifestyle interventions may delay or even prevent the onset of type 2 diabetes in people with pre-diabetes. However, engagement with DPPs is variable with session times and transportation being reported amongst barriers; this may be addressed by community pharmacy (CP) involvement given its recognition for accessibility.ObjectivesTo explore factors influencing engagement with the National Health Service (NHS) DPP and the role of CP in diabetes prevention.MethodsNine hundred and sixty-two questionnaires were posted to people with pre-diabetes identified from five general practices in Norfolk, England between November 2017 and May 2018. Follow-up semi-structured interviews (n = 10) and a focus group (n = 6) were conducted with a sample of questionnaire respondents. Questionnaire data were analysed quantitatively using SPSS and qualitative data analysed inductively using thematic analysis. Themes relating to engagement and the role of CP in pre-diabetes were further analysed using the COM-B model of behaviour change.ResultsA total of 181 (18.8%) questionnaire responses were received, a quarter of whom reported to have either dropped out or declined attending the national DPP. DPP engagers were more likely to report the program location and session times as convenient. Community pharmacy was perceived as an acceptable setting for delivering diabetes prevention services (DPS) and a preferable alternative for regular pharmacy users and people with work and social commitments.Participants felt that opportunity to engage with CP DPS is enhanced by its accessibility and flexibility in making appointments. Knowledge about the DPS provided in CP and previous experience with CP services were central influences of capability and motivation to engage respectively.ConclusionsThis research outlines factors that could influence engagement with community pharmacy-based DPS and provides evidence to inform intervention development. Further research would be required to determine the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of such interventions.     

Process study within a pilot cluster randomised trial in community pharmacy: An exploration of pharmacist readiness for research

IntroductionCommunity pharmacies have an increasingly prominent public health function. This includes addressing alcohol, but guidance on delivery of alcohol interventions in this setting is lacking. We have developed an intervention that integrates attention to alcohol within existing community pharmacy medicine review services. This paper examines the experiences of community pharmacists (CPs) in conducting a pilot trial of the intervention, including the acceptability of the trial patient recruitment procedures and the training and support provided by the research team.MethodThe pilot trial was conducted in 10 community pharmacies in Yorkshire, England. One CP from each pharmacy was recruited via a multi-stage process to assess motivation, commitment and capacity to participate. Each CP attended a research training day and received on-going research support to conduct the trial. Semi-structured audio-recorded face-to-face interviews (lasting 40–105 min) were conducted with all the CPs at the end of the trial. Data were also available from three direct observations conducted during trial support visits. Data were analysed thematically.ResultsThe CPs were supportive of research in community pharmacy but had little direct experiences of research themselves. They valued the training and support provided, which had quickly identified areas where CPs were deviating from the study recruitment protocol. In some instances, the boundaries between research and practice became blurred with CPs making changes to their usual routines and interactions with patients to accommodate the research.ConclusionsThe trial procedures were acceptable to CPs, in part because of the training and support provided. There are also identifiable areas where CPs’ readiness for research could be enhanced to facilitate participation in future trials in this setting.     

A pharmacist-led medicines review intervention in community-dwelling Māori older adults– a feasibility study protocol

BackgroundPharmacists have a role to play in supporting the optimal use of medicines to ensure older adults receive therapeutic benefit whilst minimising medicines-related harm. In Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ), Māori (Indigenous people of NZ) experience inequities in the determinants of health, including access to medicines, resulting in increased morbidity, earlier onset of chronic conditions and reduced life expectancy. This study aims to test the feasibility of a pharmacist-led medicines review intervention in community-dwelling Māori older adults.MethodThis is a non-randomised, non-controlled feasibility study undertaken within a kaupapa Māori methodological framework which supports the right of Māori to be included throughout the research process and seeks to potentiate transformational, positive change for Māori. The research pharmacist will recruit 30 participants (Māori; 55 years or older; community-dwelling). Participants will undergo a medicines education session with the pharmacist (medicines reconciliation, medicines information, well-being goal setting), with the option to proceed to a medicines optimisation session that includes the participant, pharmacist and primary prescriber (review of potentially inappropriate prescribing (PIP); medicines management plan development). Primary outcomes: participant and prescriber acceptability of intervention. Secondary outcomes include baseline and post-intervention medicines knowledge, PIP and quality of life scores, and number of changes made to the medicines regimen.Ethics and disseminationEthical approval was granted by the Northern B Health and Disability Committee (9/NTB/106). Study results will be disseminated to various stakeholders including Māori communities, health practitioners and providers, and researchers through meetings and conference presentations, lay summaries and peer-reviewed journals. This study is an example of health service design, delivery and evaluation, informed by Indigenous knowledge and methodology, developed explicitly to address inequities in health outcomes for, and with, Māori and will inform the decision to proceed to a randomised controlled trial to test the effect of this intervention.Trial registration numberACTRN12619001070123.     

Identifying barriers,facilitators and behaviour change techniques to the adoption of the full scope of pharmacy practice among pharmacy professionals: Using the Theoretical Domains Framework

BackgroundAs pharmacy evolves, pharmacy professionals continue to struggle to practice to their full scope. A theoretically-informed intervention to change practice can support pharmacy professionals in providing full scope services. The Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) can inform the design of a behaviour change intervention to improve the uptake of full scope services among pharmacy professionals.ObjectivesThis study aimed to: (1) identify barriers and facilitators influencing the adoption of full scope services among pharmacy professionals, and (2) identify optimal behaviour change techniques (BCTs) to address the identified barriers and facilitators.MethodsA three-step, mixed method study was conducted. First, a 24-item TDF-based survey was sent via email to users of a national computer-based educational platform (n = 2696). Second, TDF-based interviews were conducted with a convenient sample of survey respondents and analyzed using the framework method. Finally, validated linkages were used to link BCTs with corresponding barriers and facilitators, then interview data were analyzed using a deductive approach to guide the selection of the BCTs.ResultsA total of 225 participants completed the survey and 24 telephone interviews were conducted (17 pharmacists, 7 pharmacy technicians). A number of key barriers were identified on an individual level (e.g., lack of clear professional identity and limited decision-making skills in ambiguous cases) and on an organizational level (e.g., lack of social support from managers and concerns about making more errors with the current workflow). Mapping the barriers and facilitators to BCTs yielded 18 BCTs to support the adoption of full scope services, including modeling, rehearsal/practice, and social support.ConclusionsThis study highlighted several barriers that need to be addressed to facilitate pharmacy professionals working to their full scope, including professional collaboration, professional identity, and adequate training. A comprehensive intervention combining skills training with modeling, social support, and decision-making tools could encourage practice change.     

Policy implications of teacher perspectives on early intervention for substance misuse

Aims: Schools have emerged as a key site for prevention and early intervention strategies for antisocial behaviour. This paper examines teacher perspectives of the scope within their day-to-day practice for the implementation of monitoring and management of student risk status for substance misuse.

Methods: Teacher perspectives of early intervention for young secondary school students aged 12–14 are examined. Case studies are presented of five non-metropolitan Australian schools located in a low socioeconomic area.

Findings: The study identifies a diverse range of early intervention practice in school settings; reports that teachers are pragmatic in their identification of students at risk, and use an under-theorised construct of engagement to manage risk. A number of tensions centring on the perceived purpose of school emerge when early intervention policy is operationalised in the classroom.

Conclusion: The student wellbeing policy currently in use in Victorian schools needs to be refined. These revisions should provide schools with a clear and understandable early intervention framework that allows local translation. Any further policy development should be based on teacher understandings and capacity for early intervention.     

Effectiveness and sustainment of a tailored over-the-counter medication safety intervention in community pharmacies: A randomized controlled trial

IntroductionThe Senior Section is a continuation of a previous intervention that aims to address a gap in medication safety, specifically related to older adult selection and use of over-the-counter medications. The purpose of this paper is to describe the protocol of this study.MethodsThis study will occur in three phases: an adaptation phase, an effectiveness phase using a randomized controlled trial, and a sustainment phase. This study will take place in conjunction with administrative leadership and pharmacy sites of a regional Midwest integrated health system. Eye tracking technology will inform the adaptation of the intervention and demonstrate effectiveness in the randomized controlled trial. Following the randomized controlled trial, the health system will implement the intervention without research team support. Fidelity and long-term effectiveness outcomes will be collected to demonstrate sustainment.DiscussionThe potential implications of this study are a complete and sustained redesign of the pharmacy setting to include educational and directional materials on medication safety, leading to a decrease in over-the-counter medication misuse in older adults. This project could provide a road map for pharmacy organizations to tailor and adopt the Senior Section, to ultimately reduce inappropriate over-the-counter medication use in older adults.     

“If I were to do this,how would I experience it?” Developing a theoretical framework for exploring pharmacists’ practice in the domain of assisted dying

BackgroundWorldwide, pharmacy practice is changing to include new roles and responsibilities. Laws enabling the implementation of assisted dying are expanding in international jurisdictions. Pharmacy practice in assisted dying is subsequently expanding. However, studies of how pharmacists experience their practice when engaged in assisted dying are absent. To progress research into the lived experiences of pharmacists practicing in assisted dying, the development of an inquiry framework to guide such research is the first step.ObjectiveThe objective was to develop a theoretical framework of inquiry for use in subsequent continuing research which may explore the actual experience of pharmacy practice in assisted dying.MethodsPerspectives were gathered from expert and senior pharmacists who were anticipating the imminent implementation of assisted dying practice. Analysis focused on understanding what aspects of practice experience were important to them. Interview-conversations centred on the question: If you had the chance to talk to experienced pharmacist practitioners who have been involved in the practice of assisted dying, what aspects regarding their experiences, would you like to know about? A conventional approach to qualitative content analysis was utilized to analyze the data.ResultsFindings summarized questions posed by pharmacists contemplating the implementation of assisted dying practice. These perspectives formed the foundation of a theoretical inquiry framework constituted by 8 inter-related dimensional range-continuums. Each range-continuum, designed to explore the lived experiences of pharmacists in practice, is defined. Examples of how the inquiry dimensions will be used to inform future exploratory research are offered within the framework.ConclusionsThe theoretical inquiry framework will be used to develop knowledge for pharmacists contemplating participation (or not) in assisted dying practice. It is timely to progress research that reveals the informed experiences of pharmacists that are actually practicing in this area. The framework may be adapted for researching pharmacists’ experience in other practice areas and contexts.     

Towards defining and supporting pharmacists' professional role associated with traditional and complementary medicines – A systematic literature review

BackgroundA review conducted in 2015 reported community pharmacists are willing to adopt a professional role in counselling consumers about the appropriate and safe use of traditional and complementary medicines (T&CM) but faced multiple barriers in doing so; including the role being poorly defined. This current review aimed to update and extend these findings, by identifying studies published since 2015 that reported on pharmacists across any setting.MethodsEligible studies published between January 01, 2016 and December 31, 2021 were identified across six databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, EMBASE, ScienceDirect and MEDLINE). A grounded theory approach was used to thematically synthesize the data extracted.FindingsA total 64 studies representing pharmacists across 30 countries were included for review. Study designs varied including cross-sectional surveys (n = 36), qualitative studies (n = 14), and pseudo-patient studies (n = 3). Eight studies reported on practice and/or bioethical responsibilities and 19 studies reported on factors that would enable pharmacists to fulfill these responsibilities, while 37 studies reported about both.ConclusionThese findings indicate research about pharmacists’ responsibilities associated with T&CM is evolving from gap analysis towards research that is proactive in advocating for change in multiple areas. These findings can be used to inform a consensus discussion among pharmacists and key stakeholders regarding a set of professional responsibilities that would serve in the development of: a clearly defined role and associated practice standards, and competency requirements that inform educational learning objectives for inclusion in undergraduate, post-graduate and continuing professional pharmacy education.     

Potential normalization of an asthma mHealth intervention in community pharmacies: Applying a theory-based framework

BackgroundEffective mobile health (mHealth) interventions have been developed to support patients with their medication use, however to date few are widely used in pharmacy practice. Normalization of an intervention is essential to have a population impact, which is defined as ‘the process of getting a new intervention into routine practice’.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to assess the normalization potential of a complex mHealth intervention for adolescents with asthma (ADolescent Adherence Patient Tool; ADAPT) in community pharmacy practice.MethodsThe Normalization Process Theory (NPT), a sociological action theory, was retrospectively applied to study the normalization potential of ADAPT. NPT explains factors that promote or hinder implementation, embedding, and integration of new interventions in clinical practice. Evaluation data (structured interviews and questionnaires) of 23 pharmacists who used the ADAPT intervention were used for this study.ResultsPharmacists understood the purpose of the ADAPT intervention and were prepared to undertake the necessary work of implementation. However changes at different levels are needed to support full normalization, such as changes in the intervention itself and changes in the pharmacist's work flow. The potential for normalization could also be enhanced by the use of product champions and appropriate reimbursement guidelines, to ensure uptake of the intervention by other pharmacists. Support from professional bodies for the use of mHealth could also promote normalization.ConclusionsNormalization of mHealth is a complex continuous process. The ADAPT intervention has the potential to be normalized in community pharmacy practice, but full normalization would require changes in both daily pharmacy practice and reimbursement models.     

Classifying intervention modifications in the community pharmacy context: A demonstration study

ObjectivesThe objectives of this study were to apply the Stirman and colleagues’ framework to identify modifications made to a motivational interviewing (MI)–based intervention for medication nonadherence and to determine whether the locally modified intervention affected expected patient medication adherence outcomes in community pharmacies.MethodsPharmacists at 4 pharmacies were trained to provide a brief MI intervention to 50 patients per pharmacy who were nonadherent to antihypertensive medications. The training included a 3-hour online course in MI and in-pharmacy training on patient identification and documentation. Semistructured interviews were conducted to determine modifications to the patient identification processes, MI interventions, and documentation of interventions. Directed content analysis was guided by the Stirman and colleagues’ framework. Preintervention and 6 months postintervention adherence rates for the patients who received the intervention were calculated. Paired samples t tests were used to assess the impact of the intervention on adherence rates.ResultsModifications were made to the context of the intervention (e.g., via telephone instead of in-pharmacy). Additionally, content modifications included “loosening the structure” (e.g., reordering intervention steps), “drifting or departing” (e.g., too busy to attempt), “adding elements” (e.g., reminder cards), and “repeating elements” (e.g., patient identification). There were statistically significant improvements in adherence from preintervention to 6 months postintervention (74.1% to 84.5%; P < 0.05) at each pharmacy regardless of the modifications applied.ConclusionModifications made during intervention implementation were classified using Stirman and colleagues’ framework. Despite the modifications, adherence rates improved and were consistent with expectations based on prior studies of similar interventions. These findings support previous implementation research on adaptability and suggest that the ability to tailor, modify, or refine an intervention to meet the needs of the provider or setting may allow for intervention success. Future research on the impact of specific modifications will help determine which are detrimental or beneficial to patient outcomes and sustainability of services.     

The role of clinical pharmacists in general practice in England: Impact,perspectives, barriers and facilitators

BackgroundBy 2020/1 NHS England plans to invest over 100 m to ensure that there is one clinical pharmacist post in primary care for every 30,000 patients. A recent realist review identified key questions in the literature related to the implementation of a clinical pharmacist (CP) in a general practice role. These relate to the impact of the role, perspectives on the role (patients, GPs and pharmacists), and barriers and facilitators to the implementation process. The data collected in the national evaluation of the pilot scheme provides data to answer the realist questions identified.ObjectivesThis paper examines the experience of implementing the clinical pharmacist in general practice role, in relation to the areas identified above.MethodsThe research took a mixed methods approach to understanding the scheme implementation and this research draws on both survey and qualitative interview data from a wide range of stakeholders.ResultsPharmacists in the pilot phase are motivated to develop clinical skills and make a positive impact on patients. Data suggests that clinical pharmacists have a positive impact, in particular on health outcomes related to polypharmacy and long-term conditions. GPs have a broadly positive response to the CPs, in particular when they save time and money for the practice. However, GPs have to invest time in mentoring and building relationships to realise the benefits of the role. Patients appreciate the CP role for increasing access to a practitioner and providing expertise in medications. There are some barriers to successful implementation of the role, including policy and funding, lack of clarity around the role and lack of quantitative and economic validation of the role. Facilitators of success include supportive working relationships, integration and mentoring.ConclusionThe pilot implementation of this new role was successful but there are lessons which can be learned for the success of future iterations and more work is required to economically validate the role which is likely to in turn generate positive relationships with GPs.     

老年消化道恶性肿瘤患者营养不良影响因素分析及肠内外营养支持干预效果

目的 分析老年消化道恶性肿瘤患者营养不良的影响因素，并探讨肠内外营养支持的干预效果。方法 选取2017年1月—2019年1月我院收治的消化道恶性肿瘤患者249例，采用患者自评-主观全面评定（PG-SGA）量表评估患者营养状况，统计营养不良的发生情况；多因素Logistic回归分析老年消化道恶性肿瘤患者营养不良的影响因素，对营养不良患者给予肠内外营养支持干预，对比干预前后患者营养指标、免疫功能指标及生活质量的变化。结果 249例患者中发生营养不良167例，发生率为67.07%；多因素Logistic回归分析显示，年龄（OR=0.681， 95% CI： 1.418~3.613）、BMI（OR=6.451， 95% CI： 4.253~8.212）、既往营养不良史（OR=1.631， 95% CI： 3.219~6.032）是老年消化道恶性肿瘤患者营养不良的独立影响因素（P<0.05）；肠内外营养支持干预后，患者的营养指标、免疫功能指标及生活质量均明显改善（P<0.05）。结论 老年消化道恶性肿瘤患者营养不良的影响因素较多，给予肠内外营养支持干预可有效改善患者的营养指标、免疫功能，提升其生活质量。     

Beyond the numbers: Utilising existing textual data for qualitative research in pharmacy and health services research

IntroductionQualitative research is a well-established branch of scientific enquiry that draws insights from experiences.^{1, 2}Within social and administrative pharmacy research, interview and focus group methods are a mainstay of collecting data. However, other disciplines such as sociology, psychology and anthropology, use existing data that is routinely to provide a substance for qualitative inquiry. Drawing on our experiences of using interdisciplinary research methods, this paper presents three case studies where textual data was qualitatively analysed and critically examines the strengths and weaknesses of these method in relation to pharmacy practice.MethodsThree case studies were selected that access different types of existing, routinely collected data from pharmacy practice. This included 1) a study utilising boardroom meeting minutes, 2) a study using incident reports and 3) a study using WhatsApp messages as data. Each case study is described and critically examined. The strengths and weaknesses of this approach are based on our own reflections of completing the studies.ResultsRelationships between people, products and organisations can be examined in documents, records and text that is routinely collected. Existing data can also provide insights into culture, working patterns, education and errors. Practical advantages of using existing data include faster data collection and access to first-hand, accounts of experiences of human relationship with pharmaceutical products and practice. Drawbacks of using existing data are that some data may be missing, participants may no longer be accessible for participant checking and the context of language may have changed.ConclusionThis paper critically examined the use of methods rarely used in pharmacy practice research which draw on existing, routinely collected data. Adopting a wider range of data collection methods may will provide new understanding and insights into social and clinical pharmacy practice.     

影响创伤性骨折住院患者急性应激障碍的独立危险因素及干预措施

目的 研究影响创伤性骨折住院患者急性应激障碍（ASD）的独立危险因素及干预措施。方法 选取2016年8月至2017年9月广东省深圳市龙岗区第二人民医院收治的创伤性骨折住院患者300例为研究对象,依据斯坦福急性应激反应问卷（SASRQ）及ASD诊断标准将ASD患者纳入研究组（n=75）,无ASD患者纳入对照组（n=225）,采用一般资料问卷、心理弹性量表（CD-RISC）、医院焦虑抑郁量表（HAD）、社会支持评定量表（SSRS）及创伤严重程度评分法（AIS-ISS）、疼痛视觉模拟评分法（VAS）分析影响创伤性骨折住院患者ASD的单因素及独立危险因素,同时将ASD患者随机分为干预1组、干预2组,分别实施常规干预、综合干预,比较其干预效果。结果 研究组性别、年龄、性格、创伤史、并发症、受伤时恐惧比例与对照组比较差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）;研究组CD-RISC、SSRS评分低于对照组,HAD、AIS-ISS、VAS评分高于对照组（P<0.05）;多因素logistic回归分析结果显示,性别、并发症、受伤时恐惧、焦虑抑郁、疼痛感强为创伤性骨折患者发生ASD的独立危险因素（P<0.05）,而社会支持水平、心理弹性水平高是保护因素（P<0.05）;干预后干预1组干预有效率90.00%,高于干预2组的71.43%（P<0.05）。结论 创伤性骨折患者会受多因素影响而发生ASD,采取综合性干预措施（药物联合心理干预）可获得有较好效果。