Diagnosis of biliary strictures after liver transplantation： Which is the best tool？

AIM: To evaluate the diagnostic value of different indirect methods like biochemical parameters, ultrasound (US) analysis, CT-scan and MRI/MRCP in comparison with endoscopic retrograde cholangiography (ERC), for diagnosis of biliary complications after liver transplantation. METHODS: In 75 patients after liver transplantation, who received ERC due to suspected biliary complications, the result of the cholangiography was compared to the results of indirect imaging methods performed prior to ERC. The cholangiography showed no biliary stenosis (NoST) in 25 patients, AST in 27 and ITBL in 23 patients. RESULTS: Biliary congestion as a result of AST was detected with a sensitivity of 68.4% in US analysis (specificity 91%), of 71% in MRI (specificity 25%) and of 40% in CT (specificity 57.1%). In ITBL, biliary congestion was detected with a sensitivity of 58.8% in the US, 88.9% in MRI and of 83.3% in CT. However, as anastomotic or ischemic stenoses were the underlying cause of biliary congestion, the sensitivity of detection was very low. In MRI detected the dominant stenosis at a correct localization in 22% and CT in 10%, while US failed completely. The biochemical parameters, showed no significant difference in bilirubin (median 5.7; 4,1; 2.5 mg/dL), alkaline phosp-hatase (median 360; 339; 527 U/L) or gamma glutamyl transferase (median 277; 220; 239 U/L) levels between NoST, AST and ITBL. CONCLUSION: Our data confirm that indirect imaging methods to date cannot replace direct cholangiography for diagnosis of post transplant biliary stenoses. However MRI may have the potential to complement or precede imaging by cholangiography. Optimized MRCP-processing might further improve the diagnostic impact of this method.     

经内镜诊治肝移植术后胆道远期并发症

目的：探讨经内镜逆行胰胆管造影(ERCP)在诊断和治疗肝移植患者胆道远期并发症中的应用。方法：肝移植术后出现胆道远期并发症患者6例，共行ERCP 12次，根据患者的情况进行扩张、内镜下乳头切开取石、内支架置入等治疗。结果：1例胆总管结石行乳头切开后取石成功，1例胆道狭窄在胆道扩张后胆道梗阻症状解除，4例胆道狭窄合并胆总管结石的狭窄近端结石经乳头切开取出，狭窄远端结石行胆道扩张、内支架置入等治疗后取出。所有患者经治疗后胆红素、碱性磷酸酶等酶学指标均有不同程度的下降，无严重并发症发生。结论：ERCP是诊断和治疗肝移植患者胆道远期并发症安全、有效的手段。     

Spectrum of biliary complications following live donor liver transplantation

Liver transplantation is the optimal treatment for many patients with advanced liver disease, including decompensated cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma and acute liver failure. Organ shortage is the maindeterminant of death on the waiting list and hence living donor liver transplantation(LDLT) assumes importance. Biliary complications are the most common post operative morbidity after LDLT and occur due to anatomical and technical reasons. They include biliary leaks, strictures and cast formation and occur in the recipient as well as the donor. The types of biliary complications after LDLT along with their etiology, presenting features, diagnosis and endoscopic and surgical management are discussed.     

肝移植术后胆道并发症的磁共振评价

目的:探讨磁共振胰胆管成像(MRCP)联合MR断面图像在诊断肝移植术后胆道并发症中的应用价值.方法:对57例肝移植术后怀疑有胆道并发症的患者行MR检查,分析其表现,并与手术、胆道造影、肝脏活检和,临床随访结果进行对照.比较MRCP和MRCP联合MR断面图像对胆道并发症诊断的确诊率.结果:57例患者胆道并发症发生率64.9%(37/57).其中吻合口狭窄患者14例,非吻合口狭窄8例.孤立性胆道结石或胆泥淤积5例,胆管炎及胆管周围炎3例,胆汁湖/胆汁瘤3例,供体-受体胆总管不匹配3例,肝外胆管吻合后过长1例.对胆道并发症诊断的准确率,MRCP为75.7%(28/37),MRCP联合MRI断面图像为94.6%(35/37),两者差别有统计学意义(P<0.05).结论:MRCP联合MR断面图像能提高胆道并发症诊断的准确性.     

彩色多普勒超声检查诊断肝移植术后胆道并发症价值分析*

目的 探讨采用彩色多普勒超声检查诊断肝移植术后胆道并发症的应用价值,为提高移植肝的存活率提供保障。方法 2014年5月~2018年9月在我院行肝移植术的54例患者,采用胆道造影和彩色多普勒超声检查胆道情况。结果 经胆道造影检查,发现14例发生了肝移植术后胆道并发症,其中胆道狭窄9例,胆管内胆泥或胆石形成5例;有并发症患者肝内胆管内径和总胆管内径分别为（4.7±2.1） mm和（7.5±3.6） mm,显著大于40例无并发症患者的（1.2±0.5） mm和（4.3±1.6） mm（P<0.05）,有并发症患者肝内胆管壁厚和总胆管壁厚分别为（2.3±0.4） mm和（4.7±1.5） mm,显著大于无并发症患者的（0.8±0.2） mm和（2.1±0.9） mm（P<0.05）;以总胆管内径>6 mm、胆管壁回声增强和总胆管壁厚度>3.5 mm作为诊断标准,彩色多普勒超声检查诊断肝移植术后胆道并发症的敏感度为57.1%,特异度为80.0%。结论 使用彩色多普勒超声检查诊断肝移植术后胆道并发症的发生具有无创、方便和可重复进行的优点,具有很大的临床应用价值。     

Role of endoscopy in the conservative management of biliary complications after deceased donor liver transplantation

The clinical outcome of patients receiving liver transplantation could be significantly affected by biliary complications, including strictures, leaks, stones and bilomas; early diagnosis and treatment of these conditions lead to markedly reduction in morbidity and mortality. Therapeutic gold standard is represented by conservative approaches, both endoscopic and percutaneous, based on the type of biliary reconstruction, the local availability of the procedures and specific expertise. In patients with previous transplantation, the difficult biliary access and the possible presence of concomitant complications (mainly strictures) further restrict the efficacy of the endoscopic and percutaneous treatments; on the other hand, surgery should generally be avoided because of the even increased morbidity and mortality due to technical and clinical issues. Here we review the most common biliary complications occurring after liver transplantation and discuss available treatment options including future perspectives such as endoscopic ultrasound-guided biliary access in patients with Roux-en-Y choledocho-jejunostomy or extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for difficult stones.     

肝移植术后胆栓形成过程中内镜的诊治价值

目的 探讨内镜逆行胰胆管造影（ERCP）在肝移植术后胆栓形成过程中的诊断治疗价值.方法 71例肝移植术后出现肝功能异常、磁共振检查提示胆道内异物的患者,采用ERCP明确诊断并给予相应的治疗,对其临床资料进行回顾性分析.结果 71例患者共接受188次ERCP诊疗,多数患者伴有不同程度的吻合口和（或）胆管狭窄.术后＜3个月者均取出胆泥,3～6个月者取少量色素样结石,＞6个月者取出铸型胆栓,平均每位患者行2.6次内镜治疗,肝移植术后平均（22.7±15.6）个月形成铸型胆栓.术后发生胰腺炎2例,胆管炎3例,发生率2.6%（5/188）,均经保守治疗控制.随访56例,经内镜处理后患者肝功能均有明显改善,42例达到内镜治愈标准,10例因胆管广泛硬化性改变而行二次肝移植,4例死于移植术以外原因.结论 ERCP处理肝移植术后胆栓形成过程中的胆泥、小结石和胆栓安全可行,近期疗效较好,并可反复进行.     

Biliary complications following liver transplantation

Biliary tract complications are the most common complications after liver transplantation.These complications are encountered more commonly as a result of increased number of liver transplantations and the prolonged survival of transplant patients.Biliary complications remain a major source of morbidity in liver transplant patients,with an incidence of 5%-32%.Post liver transplantation biliary complications include strictures(anastomotic and non-anastomotic),leaks,stones,sphincter of Oddi dysfunction,and recurrence of primary biliary disease such as primary sclerosing cholangitis and primary biliary cirrhosis.The risk of occurrence of a specific biliary complication is related to the type of biliary reconstruction performed at the time of liver transplantation.In this article we seek to review the major biliary complications and their relation to the type of biliary reconstruction performed at the time of liver tranplantation.     

Benign focal liver lesions: The role of magnetic resonance imaging

Liver lesions are common findings in radiologists’ daily routine. They are a complex category of pathology that range from solitary benign lesions to primary liver cancer and liver metastases. Benign focal liver lesions can arise from different liver cell types: Epithelial (hepatocytes and biliary cells) and nonepithelial (mesenchymal cells). Liver magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a fundamental radiological method in these patients as it allows with its multiparametric approach optimal non-invasive tissue characterization. Furthermore, advanced liver MRI techniques such as diffusion-weighted imaging and hepatobiliary contrast agents have improved the detection of focal liver lesions and can be highly effective in differentiating pseudotumor from tumors, as well as benign from malignant lesions, and can also be used for differential diagnosis. Although histological examination can be useful in making a definitive diagnosis, MRI is an important modality in the diagnosis of liver lesions with a significant impact on patient care. This aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of benign liver lesions on MRI.     

经皮经肝胆道镜治疗肝移植术后胆管铸型的安全性及其临床价值观察

目的评价经皮经肝胆道镜治疗肝移植术后胆管铸型的安全性及其临床价值。方法回顾2008年4月至2010年1月间采用经皮经肝胆道镜治疗的11例肝移植术后胆管铸型患者的临床资料,对治疗情况及随访结果进行分析总结。结果11例肝移植术后胆管铸型患者中,1例铸型分布于胆总管内,3例局限于右肝内胆管,4例局限于左肝内胆管,其余3例呈肝内外胆管弥漫分布。11例患者共接受了68例次的经皮经肝胆道镜治疗,其中10例（90．9％）治疗效果良好,肝功能示转氨酶、胆红素等值较治疗前明显降低,余1例因夹闭引流管后偶有发热,给予更换细管长期带管。无一例患者发生胆瘘以及难以控制的出血等严重并发症,只有1例治疗过程中发生瘘道部分断裂,所有患者术后随访10～30个月,1例在随访过程中因其他疾病死亡,其余患者状况良好。结论经皮经肝胆道镜治疗肝移植术后胆管铸型是一种安全、有效的方法,具有较好的应用价值,可在临床上推广应用。     

Endoscopic management of biliary complications after orthotopic liver transplantation

BACKGROUND: Biliary complications are a serious problem in patients after liver transplantation and often require reoperation. This study was conducted to summarize the endoscopic diagnosis and management of biliary complications after orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT). METHODS: From December 2000 to November 2003, twelve endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatographies(ERCPs) were performed in 7 patients after OLT at Digestive Endoscopic Center of Changhai Hospital in Shanghai, China. The therapeutic maneuvers included endoscopic sphincterotomy (EST), biliary stent placement, balloon and basket extraction, irrigation, and nasobiliary tube placement. A retrospective study was made to determine the types of biliary tract complications after OLT. The success of ERCP and therapeutic maneuvers was also evaluated. RESULTS: Biliary tract complications including biliary stricture, biliary leak, biliary sludge, and stump leak of the cyst duct were treated respectively by endoscopic sphincterotomy with sludge extraction, stricture dilation or endoscopic retrograde biliary drainage. Two of the 3 patients with proximal common bile duct stricture were successfully treated with ERCP and stent placement. Four patients with anastomotic stricture and/without bile leak were treated successfully by dilation and stent placement or endoscopic nosobiliary drainage. No severe ERCP-related complications occurred. CONCLUSIONS: ERCP is an effective and accurate approach for the diagnosis of biliary tract complications after OLT, and placement of a stent is a safe initial treatment for biliary complications after liver transplantation.     

原位肝移植术后胆道并发症诊治134例

目的:探讨原位肝移植术后胆道并发症的预防和治疗.方法:回顾性分析2004-10/2006-01施行的134例肝移植患者的临床资料.结果:18例患者(共20例次)出现胆道并发症,治愈17例,1例放弃治疗.其中胆道狭窄12例次,胆漏2例次,胆管结石6例次.与T管相关的胆道并发症发生率为11.7%(14/120).胆道并发症组冷缺血时间(624min)和二次热缺血时间(60min)均高于无胆道并发症组(384min,43min,均P<0.05).结论:保存性损伤和缺血性损伤是肝移植术后胆道并发症的重要原因.术后早期胆道造影并联合应用核磁共振胆管成像有助于及时诊断胆道并发症.介入技术是胆道并发症的主要治疗手段.     

肝移植术后胆道并发症的临床及病理分析

目的探讨原位肝移植术后胆道并发症的常见病理组织学及临床特点.方法回顾性分析1998年9月-2005年6月的肝移植术后胆道并发症患者173例（235例次）肝穿刺活组织检查的病理和临床资料.结果肝移植后胆道并发症发生于术后3～2 920 d,其中1～30 d、31～90 d、91～180 d、180 d以后的发生率分别为49.71%（86/173）、17.92%（31/173）、4.62%（8/173）、27.74%（48/173）.炎症类占72.25%（125/173）,行肝穿刺活组织检查171例次;梗阻类占27.74%（48/173）,行肝穿刺活组织检查64例次.病理表现以小叶间胆管上皮细胞变性及炎细胞浸润、汇管区炎症、小胆管增生、汇管区纤维化、小胆管及肝细胞胆汁淤积为主.上述病理表现在炎症和梗阻两类并发症患者中的检出率分别为100.00%（171/171）和100.00%（64/64）、100.00%（171/171）和96.87%（62/64）、9.36%（16/171）和73.44%（47/64）、3.51%（6/171）和79.69%（51/64）、50.29%（86/171）和87.50%（56/64）、63.16%（108/171）和93.75%（60/64）.结论原位肝移植术后胆道并发症以炎症类居多,多发生于术后30 d内,梗阻类多见于术后90 d,预后较差.肝穿刺活组织检查的病理组织学表现在胆道并发症的分类、程度评估及鉴别诊断中具有重要价值.     

Management of biliary complications after orthotopic liver transplantation： The role of endoscopy

Biliary complications are significant causes of morbidity and mortality after orthotopic liver transplantation （OLT）. The estimated incidence of biliary complications after OLT ranges between 10%-25%, however, these numbers continue to decline due to improvement in surgical techniques. The most common biliary complications are strictures （both anastomotic and non-anastomotic） and bile leaks. Most of these problems can be appropriately managed with endoscopic retrograde colangiography （ERC）. Other complications such as bile duct stones, bile casts, sphincter of Oddi dysfunction, and hemobilia, are less frequent and also can be managed with ERC. This article will review the risk factors, diagnosis, and endoscopic management of the most common biliary complications after OLT.     

Efficacy of endoscopic and percutaneous treatments for biliary complications after cadaveric and living donor liver transplantation

BACKGROUND: Percutaneous transhepatic radiologic procedures as well as ERCP-based techniques have been used to treat biliary complications after liver transplantation. However, the efficacy of these treatments has not yet been clarified, especially for complications occurring after living donor liver transplantation. METHODS: A retrospective study was performed to determine the frequency and types of the biliary complications after cadaveric donor liver transplantation and living donor liver transplantation. The success of ERCP and percutaneous transhepatic radiologic procedures was also evaluated. The choice of treatment approach, ERCP or percutaneous transhepatic radiologic procedures, depended on the type of biliary reconstruction and accessibility of the lesion. RESULTS: Among 429 adult patients who underwent liver transplantation, 39 biliary complications developed in 25 patients (5.8%): biliary stricture (20), biliary stones (10), and bile leak (9). The frequency of biliary complications (5.8%; 6/103) after cadaveric donor liver transplantation was not significantly different compared with that after living donor liver transplantation (5.8%; 19/326). Success rates for treatment of biliary complications by means of ERCP and percutaneous transhepatic radiologic procedures were, respectively, 100% (11/11) and 78% (18/23). For endoscopically treated patients, balloon dilation alone for biliary strictures and nasobiliary tube placement alone for bile leaks resulted in complete resolution of the complication in, respectively, 67% (2/3) and 40% (2/5) without further intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Transpapillary endoscopic and percutaneous transhepatic radiologic interventions are both effective therapies for biliary complications associated with liver transplantation. They are complementary approaches that help to avoid surgery for these complications.     

Current management of biliary complications after liver transplantation: Emphasis on endoscopic therapy

Biliary complications occur in 5-25% of patients after liver transplantation and represent a major source of morbidity in this group of individuals. The major risk factor for most of these complications is ischemia of the bile tree usually due to obstruction or vascular insufficiency of the hepatic artery. The most common complications include biliary strictures (anastomostic and nonanastomotic), bile leaks, and biliary filling defects. The initial diagnostic approach starts with a high index of suspicion along with an abdominal ultrasound and Doppler exam. Magnetic resonance imaging is highly sensitive and is usually reserved for confirmation. The vast majority of these complications can be successfully treated with endoscopic retrograde cholangiography, however if this procedure cannot be performed a percutaneous approach or surgery is recommended. Nonanastomotic strictures and living donor recipients present a less favorable response to endoscopic management. This review focuses on the current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for the management of biliary complications after liver transplantation.     

Macro-regenerative nodules in biliary atresia： CT/MRI findings and their pathological relations

AIM： To describe the radiological findings of a macro-regenerative nodule （MRN） in the liver of pretransplantation biliary atresia （BA） patients and to correlate it with histological findings.
METHODS： Between August 1990 and November 2007, 144 BA patients underwent liver transplantation （LT） at our institution. The pre-transplantation computer tomograghy （CT） and magnetic resonance imaging （MRI） findings were reviewed and correlated with the post-transplantation pathological findings.
RESULTS： Nine tumor lesions in 7 patients were diagnosed in explanted livers. The post-transplantation pathological findings showed that all the lesions were MRNs without malignant features. No small nodule was detected by either MRI or CT. Of the 8 detectable lesions, 6 （75%） were in the central part of the liver, 5 （63%） were larger than 5 cm, 5 （63%） had intratumor tubular structures, 3 （38%） showed enhancing fibrous septa, 3 （38%） had arterial enhancement in CT, one （13%） showed enhancement in MRI, and one （13%） had internal calcifications.
CONCLUSION： Although varied in radiological appearance, MRN can be differentiated from hepatocellular carcinoma （HCC） in most of BA patients awaiting LT. The presence of an arterial-enhancing nodule does not imply that LT is withheld solely on the basis of presumed malignancy by imaging studies. Liver biopsy may be required in aid of diagnostic imaging to exclude malignancy.     

Acute biliary conditions

Acute biliary complications may result from several medical conditions such as gallstone pancreatitis, acute cholangitis, acute cholecystitis, bile leak, liver abscess and hepatic trauma. Gallstones are the most common cause of acute pancreatitis. About 25% of theses patients will develop clinically severe acute pancreatitis, usually due to necrotizing pancreatitis. Choledocholithiasis, malignant and benign biliary strictures, and stent dysfunction may cause partial or complete obstruction and infection in the biliary tract with acute cholangitis. Bile leaks are most commonly associated with hepatobiliary surgeries or invasive procedures such as open or laparoscopic cholecystectomy, hepatic resection, hepatic transplantation, liver biopsy, and percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) may have an essential role in the management of these complications.     

Biliary complications of orthotopic liver transplantation

Biliary complications are a common cause of morbidity following orthotopic liver transplantation. Complications involving the biliary tree occur after 6-34% of all liver transplants performed, usually within the first 3 months after transplantation. Bile leaks and biliary strictures are the most common biliary complications, but sphincter of Oddi dysfunction, hemobilia, and biliary obstruction from stones, sludge, or casts have also been described. The risk of specific biliary complications is related to the type of biliary reconstruction performed at the time of transplantation. In this article, we review the major types of biliary reconstruction and their associated biliary complications. Specific risk factors for the development of biliary complications are outlined. Finally, the management of biliary complications is discussed, with an emphasis on the role of endoscopic therapy.     

Cystic tumors of the liver： A practical approach

Biliary cyst tumors （cystadenoma and cystadenocarcinoma） are an indication for liver resection. They account for only 5% of all solitary cystic lesions of the liver, but differential diagnosis with multiloculated or complicated biliary cysts, atypical hemangiomas, hamartomas and lymphangiomas may be difficult. The most frequent challenge is to differentiate biliary cyst tumors from hemorrhagic cysts. Computerized tomography （CT） and magnetic resonance imaging （MRI） are often not diagnostic and in these cases fine needle aspiration （FNA） is used to confirm the presence of atypical biliary cells. FNA, however, lacks adequate sensitivity and specificity and should always be used in conjunction with imaging. Pre-operative differentiation of cystadenoma from cystadenocarcinoma is impossible and surgery must be performed if a biliary cyst tumor is suspected. When multiple cystic lesions are observed throughout the liver parenchyma, it is important to exclude liver metastasis, of which colonic cancer is the most common primary site. Multiple biliary hamartomas （von Meyenburg complex） can appear as a mixture of solid and cystic lesions and can be confused with cystic metastasis. Strong and uniform T2 hyperintensity on MRI is usually diagnostic, but occasionally a percutaneous biopsy may be required.