Predictors of hypoglycemia in insulin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in Basrah

AIM To measure the incidence and determinants(predictors) of hypoglycemia among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus(T2DM) who were on insulin treatment for at least one year. METHODS The present study is an out-patients based inquiry about the risk and predictors of hypoglycemia among patients with T2DM seeking care at the Al-Faiha Specialized Diabetes, Endocrine, and Metabolism Center, in Basrah over a period of 7 mo(from 15~(th) of April, 2013 to 15~(th) of October, 2013). The data used in the study were based on all detailed interview and selected laboratory investigations. A total of 336 patients could be included in the study.RESULTS The incidence of overall hypoglycemia among the studied patients was 75.3% within the last 3 mo preceding the interview. The incidence of hypoglycemia subtypes were 10.2% for severe hypoglycemia requiring medical assistance in the hospital, 44.36% for severe hypoglycemia treated at home by family; this includes both confirmed severe hypoglycemia with an incidence rate of 14.6% and unconfirmed severe hypoglycemia for which incidence rate was 29.76%. Regarding mild self-treated hypoglycemia, the incidence of confirmed mild hypoglycemia was 21.42%, for unconfirmed mildhypoglycemia the incidence rate was 50.0% and for total mild hypoglycemia, the incidence rate was 71.42%. The most important predictors of hypoglycemia were a peripheral residence, increasing knowledge of hypoglycemia symptoms, in availability and increasing frequency of self-monitoring blood glucose, the presence of peripheral neuropathy, higher diastolic blood pressure, and lower Hemoglobin A1c.CONCLUSION Hypoglycemia is very common among insulin-treated patients with T2DM in Basrah. It was possible to identify some important predictors of hypoglycemia.     

Type 2 diabetes mellitus and Alzheimer’s disease

Epidemiological and biological evidences support a link between type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Persons with diabetes have a higher incidence of cognitive decline and an increased risk of developing all types of dementia. Cognitive deficits in persons with diabetes mainly affect the areas of psychomotor efficiency, attention, learning and memory, mental flexibility and speed, and executive function. The strong epidemiological association has suggested the existence of a physiopathological link. The determinants of the accelerated cognitive decline in DM2, however, are less clear. Increased cortical and subcortical atrophy have been evidenced after controlling for diabetic vascular disease and inadequate cerebral circulation. Most recent studies have focused on the role of insulin and insulin resistance as possible links between diabetes and AD. Disturbances in brain insulin signaling mechanisms may contribute to the molecular, biochemical, and histopathological lesions in AD. Hyperglycemia itself is a risk factor for cognitive dysfunction and dementia. Hypoglycemia may also have deleterious effects on cognitive function. Recurrent symptomatic and asymptomatic hypoglycemic episodes have been suggested to cause sub-clinical brain damage, and permanent cognitive impairment. Future trials are required to clarify the mechanistic link, to address the question whether cognitive decline may be prevented by an adequate metabolic control, and to elucidate the role of drugs that may cause hypoglycemic episodes.     

Type 2 diabetes mellitus: From a metabolic disorder to an inflammatory condition

Diabetes mellitus is increasing at an alarming rate and has become a global challenge.Insulin resistance intarget tissues and a relative deficiency of insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells are the major features of type 2 diabetes(T2D).Chronic low-grade inflammation in T2 D has given an impetus to the field of immuno-metabolism linking inflammation to insulin resistance and β-cell dysfunction.Many factors advocate a causal link between metabolic stress and inflammation.Numerous cellular factors trigger inflammatory signalling cascades,and as a result T2 D is at the moment considered an inflammatory disorder triggered by disordered metabolism.Cellular mechanisms like activation of Tolllike receptors,Endoplasmic Reticulum stress,and inflammasome activation are related to the nutrient excess linking pathogenesis and progression of T2 D with inflammation.This paper aims to systematically review the metabolic profile and role of various inflammatory pathways in T2 D by capturing relevant evidence from various sources.The perspectives include suggestions for the development of therapies involving the shift from metabolic stress to homeostasis that would favour insulin sensitivity and survival of pancreatic β-cells in T2 D.     

Management of type 2 diabetes mellitus in youth

The rising rates of obesity in youth have concurrently led to an increase in the rates of type 2 diabetes mellitus(T2DM) in this age group.However,there are limited data on the efficacy of different antidiabetic agents in youth.In this context,the Treatment Options for Type 2 Diabetes in Adolescents and Youth trial recently reported that the majority of obese children and adolescents 10-17-years old with newly diagnosed T2DM(T2DM duration less than 2 years) could not achieve HbA1c levels < 8% for more than 1 year with metformin monotherapy,metformin plus rosiglitazone combination,or metformin and lifestyle changes.These findings suggest that,in the majority of youth with T2DM,tight long-term glycemic control with oral agents is an elusive goal and that most patients will require treatment with insulin within a few years of diagnosis to achieve HbA1c targets and reduce the risk of macroand microvascular complications.Therefore,reducing the incidence of T2DM by preventing pediatric obesity through the implementation of lifestyle changes in the community should be the primary objective of healthcare systems.     

高龄住院老年人中2型糖尿病与老年性骨折呈负相关-病例对照研究

目的：采用病例对照法初步分析2型糖尿病与老年性骨折的关系。方法根据纳入和排除标准筛选大于60周岁的住院糖尿病和非糖尿病病人,收集其人口学特征、病史和治疗情况,采用SAS 9.2软件建立logistic多元回归模型分析调整多种因素后2型糖尿病与老年性骨折的关系。结果共纳入150例病例,平均年龄82.39岁。女性（ OR：3.314,95％CI 1.191～9.218）和年龄（每增加5岁OR：1.399,95％CI 1.010～1.939）是老年性骨折的危险因素;调整年龄和性别等混杂因素的影响之后,患2型糖尿病和血管性痴呆的患者发生老年性骨折的风险更低,OR值分别为0.237（95％CI 0.072～0.787）和0.091（95％CI 0.015～0.742）。结论本研究提示在高龄住院老年人中2型糖尿病与老年性骨折呈负相关,其原因有待更大样本量的研究进行分析。     

糖尿病人胰岛素分泌功能差异对骨代谢的影响

为了解糖尿病人胰岛素水平的高低对骨代谢影响和程度,检测其馒头餐前后胰岛素和血糖水平,用跟骨超声波传导速度（ＳＯＳ）、振幅衰减（ＢＵＡ）和骨硬度指数（ＳＴＩ）。结果显示糖尿病各组ＳＯＳ、ＢＵＡ及ＳＴＩ均低于对照组,其中以胰岛素分泌低下组最明显,分泌延迟组和分泌过高组比较无显差异。组间比较,胰岛素分泌低下组胰岛素水平最低,而相应时限血糖值最高。胰岛分泌过高组胰岛素水平最高,但相应血糖值高于对照组,并     

Risk of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in patients undergoing carotid endarterectomy

Objective

There is conflicting evidence regarding the association of diabetes mellitus (DM) and insulin use with outcomes after carotid endarterectomy (CEA). Therefore, we sought to evaluate the risk of insulin-dependent DM (IDDM) and noninsulin-dependent DM (NIDDM) on 30-day outcomes after CEA.

Diabetes mellitus and cognitive impairments

There is strong evidence that diabetes mellitus increases the risk of cognitive impairment and dementia. Insulin signaling dysregulation and small vessel disease in the base of diabetes may be important contributing factors in Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia pathogenesis, respectively. Optimal glycemic control in type 1 diabetes and identification of diabetic risk factors and prophylactic approach in type 2 diabetes are very important in the prevention of cognitive complications. In addition, hypoglycemic attacks in children and elderly should be avoided. Anti-diabetic medications especially Insulin may have a role in the management of cognitive dysfunction and dementia but further investigation is needed to validate these findings.     

Role of adiponectin and some other factors linking type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity

Because of the intimate association of obesity with type 2 diabetes mellitus(T2DM), during the last two decades, extensive research work is being conducted to find out whether the coexistence of the two is a simple association or there is a positive correlating link between the two. In this article, an attempt has been made to collect and analyse the recent developments in this field and to arrive at a conclusion on the subject. The possible role of several important factors(obtained from adipocytes/not of adipocyte origin) in linking the two has been discussed in detail. Some of the agents, specifically adiponectin, are beneficial(i.e., reduce the incidence of both), while others are harmful(i.e., increase their incidence). From the analysis, it appears that obesity and T2 DM are intimately linked.     

外科病人并存糖尿病的特点及其围手术期处理

明确糖尿病病人围手术期血糖控制的安全方法。方法对６７例外科病人并存糖尿病时围手术期诊断与治疗时行回顾性分析。结果糖尿病以Ⅱ型多见,老年病人占７１．６％,病情隐戒,术前漏诊８例,术后因高渗性非酮症昏迷死亡１例,３例发生低血糖昏迷。结论静脉应用普通胰岛素是围手术期糖尿病人血糖控制的安全有效的方法。     

泌尿外科患者并发糖尿病的围手术期处理

目的：探讨泌尿外科患者并发糖尿病的特点及围手术期处理原则。方法：以对56例并发糖尿病的泌尿外科患者围手术期诊断与治疗进行回顾性分析。结果：糖尿病以Ⅱ型多见,老年患者占71．4％,病情隐匿, 术前漏诊2例,术后发生低血糖反应2例,发生酮症酸中毒、肺部感染而死亡1例。结论：对泌尿外科手术患者应将血糖测定列为常规,对确诊的糖尿病患者合理使用胰岛素严格控制血糖,是安全度过围手术期的关键。     

彩色多普勒超声诊断2型糖尿病患者下肢动脉病变

目的分析彩色多普勒超声用于诊断2型糖尿病患者下肢动脉病变的价值。方法对800例2型糖尿病患者的3组下肢动脉：胫前动脉（ATA）、胫后动脉（PTA）和足背动脉（DPA）行彩色多普勒超声检查,从管径、斑块及血流动力学方面进行比较。结果糖尿病患者下肢动脉出现斑块最多、狭窄最严重的是ATA远心端和DPA,PTA斑块相对较少,狭窄较轻。糖尿病包括糖尿病足双侧下肢动脉在管径、管腔最大狭窄率及血流动力学方面差异无统计学意义,病变程度相当。结论彩色多普勒超声在诊断糖尿病下肢动脉病变中具有重要价值,有助于了解血管狭窄程度及血流动力学方面的信息,指导临床治疗。     

糖尿病患者膀胱功能改变的临床研究

目的 :探讨糖尿病患者膀胱功能变化及其机制。方法 :将 70例糖尿病患者按照病程分为早期组和进展期组 ,分别对其初尿意的膀胱容量、最大膀胱容量、最大自由尿流率、最大尿流时的逼尿肌压力 (PQmax)、剩余尿量进行分析。结果 :早期组糖尿病患者产生初尿意的膀胱容量增大至 (15 1.6 7± 2 4 .0 7)ml,进展期糖尿病患者初尿意的膀胱容量进一步增大至 (2 6 8.16± 13.90 )ml,最大膀胱容量增大至 (5 92 .97± 2 5 2 .5 1)ml,最大自由尿流率降低至 (8.6 1± 2 .0 4 )ml/min ,PQmax降低 (3.2 5± 1.94 )kPa ,剩余尿量增加至 (16 9.0 3± 137.2 5 )ml。结论 :早期糖尿病患者膀胱感觉减退可能是逼尿肌兴奋性降低的缘故 ;进展期糖尿病患者的一系列尿动力学改变 ,可能是在逼尿肌兴奋性改变的基础上出现逼尿肌收缩力降低的结果。     

Polycystic ovary syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus: A state-of-the-art review

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) often coexists with a wide spectrum of dysglycemic conditions, ranging from impaired glucose tolerance to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D), which occur to a greater extent compared to healthy body mass index-matched women. This concurrence of disorders is mainly attributed to common pathogenetic pathways linking the two entities, such as insulin resistance. However, due to methodological flaws in the available studies and the multifaceted nature of the syndrome, there has been substantial controversy as to the exact association between T2D and PCOS which has not yet been elucidated. The aim of this review is to present the best available evidence regarding the epidemiology of dysglycemia in PCOS, the unique pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the progression of dysglycemia, the most appropriate methods for assessing glycemic status and the risk factors for T2D development in this population, as well as T2D risk after transition to menopause. Proposals for application of a holistic approach to enable optimal management of T2D risk in PCOS are also provided. Specifically, adoption of a healthy lifestyle with adherence to improved dietary patterns, such the Mediterranean diet, avoidance of consumption of endocrine-disrupting foods and beverages, regular exercise, and the effect of certain medications, such as metformin and glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists, are discussed. Furthermore, the maintenance of a healthy weight is highlighted as a key factor in achievement of a significant reduction of T2D risk in women with PCOS.     

硫化氢对2型糖尿病大鼠胰岛素抵抗和脂代谢的影响

目的 观察硫化氢对2型糖尿病(T2DM)大鼠胰岛素抵抗和脂代谢的影响.方法 65只大鼠采用高糖高脂饮食+腹腔注射链脲佐菌素(STZ)的方法建立T2DM模型,将45只成模大鼠随机分为糖尿病(DM)、DM+硫氢化钠(NaHS)和DM+ DL-炔丙基甘氨酸(PAG)组,每组各15只,另设正常对照组.DM+ NaHS组大鼠腹腔注射NaHS[56 μmol/(kg·d)],DM+ PAG组腹腔注射PAG[50 mg/(kg·d)],对照组和DM组给予相同体积的生理盐水,连续给药2周.给药结束后,测定大鼠空腹血糖(FBG)、胰岛素(FIns)、甘油三酯(TG)、总胆固醇(TC)、游离脂肪酸(FFA),计算胰岛素抵抗指数(HOMA-IR)、胰岛素敏感指数(ISI);测定胰腺组织中硫化氢(H2S)浓度,免疫组织化学方法检测胰腺组织胰岛素表达.结果 与对照组比较,DM组大鼠FBG[(18.22±3.99) mmol/L]、TG[(1.54 ±0.16) mmol/L]、TC[(3.27±0.38) mmol/L]、FFA[(504.68±37.70) μmol/L]水平及HOMA-IR升高(P＜0.05),FIns[(41.79±3.43) mU/L]和ISI(-6.57 ±0.37)降低,胰腺组织H2S浓度[(96.98±19.44) μmol/L]升高,胰腺组织胰岛素阳性表达细胞面积(AIEP)和胰岛素阳性染色率(PRSI)降低,差异均有统计学意义(P＜0.05);与糖尿病组比较,NaHS干预后,糖尿病大鼠FBG[(25.42 ±0.21) mmol/L]、TG[(2.40 ±0.21) mmol/L]、TC[(4.80 ±0.16) mmol/L]、FFA[(633.96±25.64)μmol/L]水平及HOMA-IR升高更明显,FIns[(29.36±2.65) mU/L]和ISI(-6.58±0.27)降低,胰腺组织H2S浓度[(134.50±12.70)μmol/L]明显升高,AIEP和PRSI降低,差异均有统计学意义(P＜0.05);应用PAG后,糖尿病大鼠血浆FBG[(10.83±1.10) mmol/L]、TG[(1.30±0.12) mmol/L]、TC[(2.79 ±0.33) mmol/L]、FFA[(383.39±69.00) μmol/L]水平明显降低,胰岛素抵抗改善,FIns[(51.58±1.49) mU/L]和ISI(-6.32±0.11)明显升高,胰腺组织H2S浓度[(71.48±10.94) μmol/L]明显降低,AIEP和PRSI增加.结论 H2S通过影响T2DM大鼠胰岛素抵抗和脂代谢参与糖尿病发生发展.     

应用自发性高血压大鼠建立2型糖尿病早期肾损害模型

目的 应用自发性高血压大鼠（SHR）建立具有胰岛素抵抗和早期肾脏损害特征的2型糖尿病模型。 方法 采用高糖高脂饲料喂养SHR大鼠2周诱导胰岛素抵抗,同时用WKY大鼠作为对照组。测定大鼠收缩压、血糖、三酰甘油、胆固醇及胰岛素水平,计算稳态模型评价的胰岛素抵抗指数（HOMA-IR）。禁食12 h后,模型组予以腹腔注射链脲菌素（STZ）35 mg/kg,对照组予以相同剂量的柠檬酸缓冲液。注射STZ 72 h后测随机血糖,以血糖≥16.7 mmol/L为造模成功。观察8周后模型组与对照组的肾质量指数、收缩压、血脂、尿蛋白排泄以及肾脏病理变化情况。 结果 SHR大鼠高糖高脂饲料喂养2周后,与对照组相比,体质量、血脂、血糖均显著增加（均P ＜ 0.05）,HOMA-IR也显著升高（5.03±0.38比2.61±0.34,P ＜ 0.05）。8周后,模型组大鼠多尿、多饮、体质量减轻,收缩压、血糖和糖化血红蛋白水平显著升高（P ＜ 0.01）。尿蛋白量（24 h）明显增加[（57.58±16.54） mg/24 h比（5.35±1.90） mg/24 h,P ＜ 0.01],肾质量指数（mg/g）也增加（P ＜ 0.05）,造模成功率为81.8%。病理改变为肾脏肥大,肾小球系膜基质增多,毛细血管基底膜增厚,足细胞空泡变性,足突消失,部分融合。 结论 联合高糖高脂饲料及小剂量STZ注射SHR大鼠成功制备2型糖尿病特征的动物模型,并诱导出糖尿病早期肾脏损害,为进一步研究2型糖尿病肾病发生机制和药物干预提供了简单实用的动物模型。     

Diabetes and cognitive decline: Challenges and future direction

There is growing evidence that diabetes can induce cognitive decline and dementia. It is a slow, progressive cognitive decline that can occur in any age group, but is seen more frequently in older individuals. Symptoms related to cognitive decline are worsened by chronic metabolic syndrome. Animal models are frequently utilized to elucidate the mechanisms of cognitive decline in diabetes and to assess potential drugs for therapy and prevention. This review addresses the common factors and pathophysiology involved in diabetes-related cognitive decline and outlines the various animal models used to study this condition.     

Competences for self-care and self-control in diabetes mellitus type 2 in primary health care

The purpose of the guidelines of self-care and self-control of type 2 diabetes mellitus proposed by the Brazilian Ministry of Health is to strengthen and qualify users and health care professionals through the integrality and longitudinality of care with this disease. This article aims to present the self-care and self-control of people with type 2 diabetes mellitus in objective terms, taking into account the current recommen-dations based on scientific evidence and also from the subjective point of view, that is, emphasizing the aspects related to experience and subjectivity of these people. Next, we present the essential skills for self-care and self-control of users and professionals working in primary health care.     

Oxidative stress,insulin resistance,dyslipidemia and type 2 diabetes mellitus

Oxidative stress is increased in metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus(T2DM) and this appears to underlie the development of cardiovascular disease,T2 DM and diabetic complications.Increased oxidative stress appears to be a deleterious factor leading toinsulin resistance,dyslipidemia,β-cell dysfunction,impaired glucose tolerance and ultimately leading to T2 DM.Chronic oxidative stress,hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia are particularly dangerous for β-cells from lowest levels of antioxidant,have high oxidative energy requirements,decrease the gene expression of key β-cell genes and induce cell death.If β-cell functioning is impaired,it results in an under production of insulin,impairs glucose stimulated insulin secretion,fasting hyperglycemia and eventually the development of T2 DM.