老年人冠心病无症状心肌缺血诊断体会

冠状动脉粥样硬化性心脏病指冠状动脉硬化使血管腔阻塞导致心肌缺血缺氧而引起的心脏病，又称为缺血性心脏病，冠心病是动脉粥样硬化导致器官病变的最常见类型，也是严重危害人们健康的常见病，本病多发生在40岁以后，男性多于女性，脑力劳动者较多见，本病发病与患者年龄、职业、体重、饮食习惯，遗传等有密切关系，高血脂、高血压、糖尿病、患者并发冠心病发病机会最多，而无症状心肌缺血是冠心病恶性事件发生的危险因素，[第一段]     

急性心肌梗死应激性高血糖发生的危险因素分析及对近期预后影响的初步研究

目的:探讨急性心肌梗死患者发生应激性高血糖的相关危险因素,并评估应激性高血糖对急性心肌梗死患者近期预后的影响和意义.方法:对我院2005-08至2009-04初次发生ST段抬高急性心肌梗死且在12 h内接受急诊经皮冠状动脉介入治疗的329例非糖尿病住院患者进行分析,以空腹血糖≥7.0 mmol/L划分为有应激性高血糖组(n=121)和<7.0 mmol/L为无应激性高血糖组(n=208)两组,随访50天,进行应激性高血糖发生危险因素的logistics回归分析及死亡发生风险的Cox分析.结果:应激性高血糖发生率是36.8%(121/329),50天内总病死率是8.5%(28/329).与无应激性高血糖组患者相比,有应激性高血糖组患者的年龄偏大[(64±12)岁vs(58±12)岁,P<0.001]、女性患者较多(33.1%vs 13.9%,P<0.001)、心功能Killip分级≥Ⅱ级者较多(52.9%vs 15.9%,P<0.001),血糖浓度较高[(9.1±3.3)mmol/L vs(5.4±0.4)mmol/L,P<0.001],病死率较高(16.5%vs 3.8%,P<0.001),两组间比较差异有统计学意义.多因素logistics回归提示高龄[比值比(OR)1.024,95%可信区间(CI)1.001 to 1.047,P=0.043],女性[OR 3.013,95%CI 1.617 to5.616,P=0.001]和心功能Killip分级愈高[OR 2.161,95%CI 1.532 to 3.048,P<0.001]是应激性高血糖发生的相关危险因素.多因素Cox比例风险模型对两组患者50天内发生的死亡进行分析,提示应激性高血糖是死亡[OR 2.459,95%CI 1.022 to 5.921,P=0.045]的独立预测因子.结论:高龄、女性、心功能Killip分级愈高是应激性高血糖发生的相关危险因素,提示老年女性心功能愈差愈容易发生应激性高血糖.应激性高血糖是急性心肌梗死患者住院期间预后不良的独立预测因子和危险因素.     

女性冠心病临床特征研究进展

冠心病是影响女性身体健康和死亡的头号病因.由于性别、生理和社会环境的不同,与男性相比,女性冠心痛在危险因素、临床表现及其治疗预后上均有着不同程度的差异.当前女性冠心痛主要有如下特点:社会重视程度不足;危险因素较特殊;心肌缺血症状不典型;就医时危险因素多和病情重;治疗不够积极;病死率高.因此,当前有必要加强对女性冠心病的研究和诊治工作,以全面提高女性冠心病的防治水平.     

中青年女性冠心病患者临床及冠状动脉病变特点分析

目的探讨中青年女性冠心病临床特征及冠状动脉病变特点和相关危险因素。方法对主诉有胸痛的中青年女性患者行冠状动脉造影,确认有冠状动脉病变的2l例作临床、冠状动脉病变特点及相关危险因素分析。结果中青年女性患者多以单支病变为主,且前降支病变多见。结论对有胸痛症状的中青年女性,应尽早行冠状动脉造影检查及冠心病干预治疗。     

应激性高血糖对急性ST段抬高型心肌梗死患者远期预后的影响

目的探讨急性sT段抬高型心肌梗死（STEMI）患者发生应激性高血糖的相关危险因素,并评估应激性高血糖对STEMI患者远期预后的影响。方法白求恩国际和平医院2009年8月至2010年4月92例初次发生STEMI的非糖尿病住院患者,根据入院后测定的空腹血糖或随机血糖分A组（应激性高血糖组）41例和B组（血糖正常组）51例。平均随访1．5年。结果应激性高血糖的发生率是44．6％（41／92）。A和B组间经logistic回归分析提示女性（OR=8．952,P=0．013）、心功Killip分级越高（OR=3．530,P=0．048）、肌酸激酶同工酶（CK．MB）峰值越高（OR=9．408,P〈0．001）均是应激性高血糖发生的相关危险因素。Cox回归对A和B组患者1～2年内发生的死亡风险进行分析,提示应激性高血糖是远期死亡（RR1．532,95％CI1．004--2．337,P=0．048）的独立预测因子。高甘油三酯血症患者远期死亡风险是正常者1．557倍（P=0．041）。结论女性、Killip分级、CK．MB增高是应激性高血糖发生的相关危险因素。应激性高血糖可能是STEMI患者远期预后不良的独立预测因子和危险因素。高甘油三酯血症可能加重患者的死亡风险。     

女性冠心病临床特征的分析

目的探讨女性冠心病的临床特征及其发病的危险因素,以提高对女性冠心病防治重要性的认识。方法回顾分析了我院自1995年5月～2002年5月经治的228例冠心病患者的临床资料,采用男女病例对照分析。结果与男性冠心病患者相比较,女性冠心病患者并存糖尿病及闭经后的发病率明显提高,女性急性心肌梗死预后较差,生存率低。结论女性冠心病具有独特的临床特征及预后,应加强研究与防治。     

中青年女性冠心病临床特点分析

目的了解中青年女性冠状动脉性心脏病(冠心病)患者的临床和冠状动脉造影影像学特征及危险因素。方法入选2006年6月至2011年6月在马鞍山市中心医院心内科接受冠状动脉造影的住院中青年女性患者253例(年龄≤55岁)和同龄男性冠心病患者222例,根据冠状动脉造影结果分成女性冠心病组(n=96)、女性非冠心病组(n=157)和男性冠心病组(n=222),分析不同性别冠心病组冠状动脉病变的数量和部位;采用多因素Logistic回归分析中青年女性冠心病患者的影响因素。结果中青年女性冠心病组与非冠心病组相比,吸烟史、血压[(147.3±14.6/79.9±13.5)vs.(127.9±4.7/71.1±13.1)mm Hg]、空腹血糖[(6.32±1.26)vs.(5.56±1.19)mmol/L]、总胆固醇[(4.99±0.96)vs.(4.44±0.78)mmol/L]和低密度脂蛋白胆固醇(LDL-C)[(2.96±0.71)vs.(2.48±0.69)mmol/L]高(均p0.01)。与男性冠心病组相比,女性冠心病组糖尿病史比例较高(16.7%vs.4.5%,p0.05),冠状动脉病变以单支病变多见(58%vs.41%,p0.01);吸烟史比例、三支病变的发生率低(分别3.1%vs.14.9%,17%vs.36%,均p0.01)。多因素Logistic回归分析结果显示:糖尿病、高血压及吸烟史是女性冠心病的主要危险因素,OR值分别为4.286、3.267、2.500(均p0.05)。结论中青年女性冠心病患者,糖尿病是最重要的危险因素,其冠脉病变多为单支病变。     

75岁以上老年女性冠心病患者的临床特点分析

目的分析不同性别的老年冠心病临床特征,探讨影响老年女性冠心病的危险因素。方法选择年龄75岁的冠心病患者156例,男性94例,女性62例,比较两者既往病史、生化指标、干预方法等的差异,分析影响预后的危险因素。结果女性患者中,糖尿病、骨折史、脑卒中发病率分别为74.19%、1 6.21%、38.71%,男性分别为38.30%、2.13%、25.53%,差异有统计学意义(P0.05);女性患者TG水平较男性高(P0.01)、再血管化治疗率较男性低(P0.05)。logistic回归分析显示,肾小球滤过率(OR=0.967,P0.01)是影响女性患者预后的独立危险因素。结论年龄75岁女性冠心病患者的特点是糖尿病、骨折史、高甘油三酯血症、再血管化治疗率低,低肾小球滤过率是影响女性患者预后的独立危险因素。     

影响心肌梗塞预后的有关因素

心肌梗塞死亡率随年龄增加而增加。80岁以上的老年人死亡率高达80％。再发心肌梗塞或长期心绞痛的病人,头两年死亡率增加两倍,伴有高血压或糖尿病的患者能增加急性期和晚期死亡率。长期吸烟者亦为重要危险因素。女性较男性预后差,是因为冠心病在女性发病较晚的缘故。 心肌梗塞超急性期和晚期出现持续性或再发心肌缺血,中、重度左心机能减退和室性心律紊乱是增加心肌梗塞死亡率的危险因素。尤以前二者更为严重。频发室性早搏经常发生在显著左心肌能不全或再发心肌缺血。     

伴有糖代谢紊乱冠心病患者的临床特征

为了解冠心病患者伴有或不伴有糖代谢紊乱时临床特点，为此，回顾分析８１０例冠心病患者，其中合并糖尿病占１７．２％，合并应激性高血糖状态占１５．８％。冠心病合并糖尿病患者中伴高血压、脑卒中、高脂血症及阳性家族史率较非糖尿病冠心病患者明显升高，该组患者无胸痛型较多（占４９．２％），病情较重，病死率是非糖尿病冠心病者的２．３６倍，该组病人中近四分之一的糖尿病诊断于冠心病之后，近四分之一是两者同时诊断，无论二者诊断先后，其冠心病的其它危险因素的伴发率、临床特征及病死率无显著差异。这提示糖尿病与冠心病可能为伴发或并发关系，前者是后者的危险因素之一，糖尿病的早期诊治对冠心病的预后非常重要。合并应激性高血糖状态的患者年龄较大，病情较重，病死率高，需予重视。     

Importance of coronary risk factors in the presence or absence of myocardial ischemia

Smoking history, systolic blood pressure, and serum cholesterol concentration were studied for their value in predicting 5-year coronary mortality in middle-aged and older Finnish men. Total experience consisted of 188 deaths from ischemic heart disease during 20,245 person-years. Initially, the men were divided into 3 groups according to the degree of myocardial ischemia: (1) previous myocardial infarction; (2) ischemic heart disease without infarction; and (3) no myocardial ischemia.

The 3 main risk factors were associated, independently of each other and of age, with the relative risk of coronary death similarly in the 3 groups, whereas their absolute impact on mortality was strong among men with ischemic heart disease and even stronger among those with a prior myocardial infarction. For example, the estimated excess coronary mortality attributable to smoking 10 to 19 cigarettes per day was 6.3 deaths per 1,000 person-years in the group with no ischemia, 14.6 in the ischemia group, and 43.1 in the infarction group.

The results suggest that secondary prevention of ischemic heart disease may be important. Screening of coronary disease among middle-aged and older men also appears justified.     

Fifteen-year risk of major coronary events predicted by Holter ST-monitoring in asymptomatic middle-aged men.

BACKGROUND: Ambulatory electrocardiogram monitoring (Holter) with ST-analysis as a measure of myocardial ischemia has in populations with coronary heart disease been shown to predict major coronary events: death, myocardial infarction or coronary revascularization. There has, however, been conflicting evidence regarding the usefulness of this technique in identification of healthy subjects with increased risk for coronary heart disease. The aim of this study was to assess if Holter monitoring with ST-analysis could be used to predict future major coronary events in asymptomatic middle-aged men with a defined aggregation of traditional risk factors for coronary heart disease. METHODS: One hundred and fifty-five asymptomatic participants from the city of Malm?, Sweden, with known levels of conventional cardiovascular risk factors underwent Holter monitoring for analysis of transient ST-segment depression at the age of 55 years. Fifteen years after the Holter monitoring, hospital records, diagnosis and death registries were revisited for major coronary events. RESULTS: An ST-segment depression of 1 mm or greater (0.1 mV) was considered significant for myocardial ischemia and was found in 54 of the 155 men. There were no significant differences in risk factors in the two groups at baseline. The 15-year incidence of a first major coronary event was significantly higher in men with ST-segment depression (39%) than in men without ST-segment depression (20%) (P<0.015). A Holter electrocardiogram could predict future major coronary events with a positive and negative predictive value of 35 and 80%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Holter monitoring can be used as a complement to conventional risk factor evaluation in deciding whether or not to treat risk factors for CHD in asymptomatic subjects.     

Comparison of peripheral arterial response to mental stress in men versus women with coronary artery disease

There are profound gender-related differences in the incidence, presentation, and outcomes of coronary artery disease (CAD). These differences are not entirely explained by traditional cardiovascular risk factors. Nontraditional risk factors, such as psychological traits, have increasingly been recognized as important contributors to the genesis and outcomes of CAD. Mental stress induces significant peripheral arterial vasoconstriction, with consequent increases in heart rate and blood pressure. These changes are thought to underlie the development of myocardial ischemia and other mental stress-induced adverse cardiac events in patients with CAD. This study examined for gender-related differences in peripheral arterial response to mental stress in a cohort of patients with CAD using a novel peripheral arterial tonometric (PAT) technique. There were 211 patients (77 women; 37%) with a documented history of CAD and a mean age of 64 +/- 9 years. Patients were enrolled from August 18, 2004, to February 21, 2007. Mental stress was induced using a public speaking task. Hemodynamic and PAT measurements were recorded during rest and mental stress. The PAT response was calculated as a ratio of pulse wave amplitude during stress to at rest. PAT responses were compared between men and women. The PAT ratio (during stress to at rest) was significantly higher in women compared with men. Mean PAT ratio was 0.80 +/- 0.72 in women compared with 0.59 +/- 0.48 in men (p = 0.032). This finding remained significant after controlling for possible confounding factors (p = 0.037). In conclusion, peripheral vasoconstrictive response to mental stress was more pronounced in men compared with women. This finding may suggest that men have higher susceptibility to mental stress-related adverse effects. Additional studies are needed to determine the significance of this finding.     

Effects of mental stress on coronary epicardial vasomotion and flow velocity in coronary artery disease: relationship with hemodynamic stress responses

OBJECTIVES: This study examines the prevalence and hemodynamic determinants of mental stress-induced coronary vasoconstriction in patients undergoing diagnostic coronary angiography. BACKGROUND: Decreased myocardial supply is involved in myocardial ischemia triggered by mental stress, but the determinants of stress-induced coronary constriction and flow velocity responses are not well understood. METHODS: Coronary vasomotion was assessed in 76 patients (average age 59.9 +/- 10.4 years; eight women). Coronary flow velocity responses were assessed in 20 of the 76 patients using intracoronary Doppler flow. Repeated angiograms were obtained after a baseline control period, a 3-min mental arithmetic task and administration of 200 microg intracoronary nitroglycerin. Arterial blood pressure (BP) and heart rate assessments were made throughout the procedure. RESULTS: Mental stress resulted in significant BP and heart rate increases (p < 0.001). Coronary constriction (>0.15 mm) was observed in 11 of 59 patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) (18.6%). Higher mental stress pressor responses were associated with more constriction in diseased segments (rdeltaSBP = -0.26, rdeltaDBP = -0.30, rdeltaMAP = -0.29; p's < 0.05) but not with responses in nonstenotic segments. The overall constriction of diseased segments was not significant (p > 0.10), whereas a small but significant constriction occurred in nonstenotic segments (p = 0.04). Coronary flow velocity increased in patients without CAD (32.2%; p = 0.008), but not in patients with CAD (6.4%; p = ns). Cardiovascular risk factors were not predictive of stress-induced vasomotion in patients with CAD. CONCLUSIONS: Coronary vasoconstriction in angiographically diseased arteries varies with hemodynamic responses to mental arousal. Coronary flow responses are attenuated in CAD patients. Thus, combined increases in cardiac demand and concomitant reduced myocardial blood supply may contribute to myocardial ischemia with mental stress.     

Association of beta1-adrenergic receptor genetic polymorphism with mental stress-induced myocardial ischemia in patients with coronary artery disease

BACKGROUND: Mental stress is associated with sympathetic adrenergic stimulation and concomitant increases in blood pressure and heart rate. Heritable individual differences in cardiovascular functional response to mental stress may arise from genetic variations in adrenergic receptors, which might produce excessive hemodynamic response to mental stress or create other conditions favoring the development of myocardial ischemia. METHODS: We examined the relationship between hemodynamic response to mental stress and mental stress-induced myocardial ischemia (MSIMI) and 5 common functional polymorphisms of beta1-adrenergic receptors (ADRB1 [OMIM 109630, accession No. 153]) and beta2-adrenergic receptors (ADRB2 [OMIM 109690, accession No. 154]). Participants were 148 patients (45 female [30.4%]) with a documented history of coronary artery disease and a mean (SD) age of 64 (9) years. Patients were enrolled between December 9, 2004, and February 21, 2007. Mental stress was induced via a public-speaking task. Rest and stress myocardial perfusion imaging was performed. Blood samples were collected and genotyped for 5 common functional polymorphisms of ADRB1 (codons 49 and 389) and ADRB2 (codons 16 and 27 and nucleotide 523). The main outcome measures were hemodynamic and myocardial ischemic responses to mental stress. Mental stress-induced myocardial ischemia was defined as new or worsening perfusion defects during mental stress with a summed (stress to rest) difference score of at least 3. RESULTS: A statistically significant difference was noted in the prevalences of MSIMI between genotype groups for codon 49 of ADRB1. Mental stress-induced myocardial ischemia occurred 3 times more frequently among patients homozygous for the Ser49 allele (31 of 104 patients [29.8%]) compared with 4 of 39 patients (10.3%) among the Gly49 allele carriers (P=.02). The adjusted odds ratio for the effect of genotype (Ser/Ser vs Gly carriers) on MSIMI was 3.9 (95% confidence interval, 1.2-12.5) (P=.02). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate an association between a common genetic variation in ADRB1 and myocardial ischemic response to mental stress in patients with coronary artery disease. This polymorphic genetic marker may help identify patients at increased risk for mental stress-induced adverse outcomes.     

Major and minor electrocardiographic abnormalities and risk of death from coronary heart disease, cardiovascular diseases and all causes in men and women

The independent contributions of baseline major and minor electrocardiographic (ECG) abnormalities to subsequent 11.5 year risk of death from coronary heart disease, all cardiovascular diseases and all causes were explored among 9,643 white men and 7,990 white women aged 40 to 64 years without definite prior coronary heart disease in the Chicago Heart Association Detection Project in Industry. At baseline, prevalence rates of major ECG abnormalities were higher in women than in men, with age-adjusted rates of 12.9 and 9.6% (p less than 0.01), respectively. Minor ECG abnormalities were more common in men than in women (7.3 versus 4.5%, p less than 0.01). Both major and minor ECG abnormalities were associated with an increased risk of death from coronary heart disease, all cardiovascular diseases and all causes. The strength of these associations was greater in men than in women. When baseline age, diastolic pressure, serum cholesterol, cigarettes smoked per day, diabetes and use of antihypertensive medication were taken into account, major abnormalities continued to be significantly related to each cause of death in both genders with much larger adjusted absolute excess risk and relative risk for men than for women. In multivariate analyses, minor ECG abnormalities contributed independently to risk of death in men, but not clearly so in women. The results indicate the independent association between ECG abnormalities and mortality from coronary heart disease, all cardiovascular diseases and all causes, with greater relative significance in middle-aged United States men than women.     

Excess mortality associated with increased pulse pressure among middle-aged men and women is explained by high systolic blood pressure

OBJECTIVE: To assess the risk of death from coronary heart disease, stroke, all cardiovascular diseases and all-cause mortality associated with pulse pressure among the middle-aged population. METHODS AND DESIGN: A prospective 15-year follow-up cohort study was conducted of two independent cross-sectional random samples of the population who participated in baseline surveys in 1972 or 1977. Each survey included a self-administered questionnaire with questions on smoking and antihypertensive drug treatment, measurements of height, weight and blood pressure and the determination of the serum cholesterol concentration. Multivariate analyses were performed by using Cox proportional hazard models. SETTING: The provinces of North Karelia and Kuopio in eastern Finland PARTICIPANTS: Men and women aged 45-64 years with no history of myocardial infarction or stroke at the time of the baseline survey were selected. In total 4333 men and 5270 women took part in this follow-up study. RESULTS: The relative risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality increased with the increasing pulse pressure in individuals aged 45-64 years independent of the diastolic blood pressure level. Only in women with diastolic blood pressure > or = 95 mmHg was the relative risk of fatal stroke not statistically significant. After adjustment for systolic blood pressure, the positive association between mortality and increasing pulse pressure disappeared. CONCLUSION: Increasing pulse pressure is a predictor of death from coronary heart disease, stroke, cardiovascular disease and all causes in men and women aged 45-64 years, but the increase in risk is entirely associated with the increase in systolic blood pressure.     

Novel cardiovascular risk markers in women with ischaemic heart disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) represents the leading cause of death among women in Europe. About 53% of female deaths are due to CVD, particularly coronary heart disease and stroke.1-9 The incidence of coronary heart disease is significantly lower in premenopausal women, due to their hormonal protection, but there are reportedly more complex mechanisms involved. Angina pectoris and heart attack occur in women about 10 and 20 years, respectively, later than in men.5There are significant gender-related differences concerning coronary heart disease. The particularities regarding women are: higher prevalence in women over 75 years, the first coronary event is 10 years later than in men, atypical symptoms, high incidence of non-Q-wave myocardial infarction, and the prevalence of coronary arteries without angiographic findings is twice as common as in men.6Since 2004, guidelines have been emphasising the importance of recognising cardiovascular risk factors in women and also to classify women at high, intermediate or ‘ideal’ cardiovascular risk.2-4 A high-risk status is given not only by the presence of coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, chronic arterial occlusive disease, aortic aneurysm or a Framingham score over 10%, but also by the presence of chronic kidney disease or diabetes.2Women who face the threat of cardiovascular disease present with one or more risk factors including: smoking, pro-atherogenic diet, obesity (especially central obesity), family history of cardiovascular disease at a young age, hypertension and dyslipidaemia. Furthermore, it seems that subclinical vascular disease (such as coronary calcification), the metabolic syndrome, a low effort capacity or an abnormal heart rate recovery after the exercise stress test creates a prominent cardiovascular risk among women.2 Latest studies show that women diagnosed with collagen disease (auto-immune disease), a history of pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes or pregnancy-induced hypertension require strict medical management due to their high predictive ability for the development of cardiovascular disease.2Ideal cardiovascular health status is gained by women with blood pressure below 120/80 mmHg, total cholesterol level below 200 mg/dl, fasting plasma glucose below 100 mg/dl (without specific treatment), body mass index (BMI) below 25 kg/m² and, undoubtedly, by those who practice intense physical exercise at least 150 minutes per week, or moderate exercise for 75 minutes per week, and by non-smoking women.2Review of the evidence reveals that compilation of traditional risk factors and cardiovascular risk scores underestimates the risk in women. Therefore, ongoing areas of research are focusing on novel markers of cardiovascular risk. These novel cardiovascular risk biomarkers have been selected because their increased plasma levels worsen endothelial dysfunction and inflammation, both being key players in the pathogenesis of microvascular angina, which is a common phenomenon in women.1The Women’s Health Initiative hormone trials showed that at least 18 new biomarkers are useful in estimating cardiovascular risk in postmenopausal women. These are lipoprotein (a), homocysteine, insulin, C-reactive protein (CRP), E-selectin, interleukin-6, matrix metalloproteinase-9, fibrin D-dimer, factor VIII, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 antigen, prothrombin fragment 1.2, plasmin–antiplasmin complex, thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor, von Willebrand factor, fibrinogen, haematocrit, leukocyte and platelet counts.10 These novel biomarkers of cardiovascular risk are classified into three categories: inflammatory markers, haemostasis markers, and other biomarkers.     

A prospective study of maturity-onset diabetes mellitus and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in women

We examined the relationship of maturity-onset clinical diabetes mellitus with the subsequent incidence of coronary heart disease, stroke, total cardiovascular mortality, and all-cause mortality in a cohort of 116,177 US women who were 30 to 55 years of age and free of known coronary heart disease, stroke, and cancer in 1976. During 8 years of follow-up (889 255 person-years), we identified 338 nonfatal myocardial infarctions, 111 coronary deaths, 259 strokes, 238 cardiovascular deaths, and 1349 deaths from all causes. Diabetes was associated with a markedly increased risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction and fatal coronary heart disease (age-adjusted relative risk [RR] = 6.7; 95% confidence interval [CI], 5.3 to 8.4), ischemic stroke (RR = 5.4; 95% CI, 3.3 to 9.0), total cardiovascular mortality (RR = 6.3; 95% CI, 4.6 to 8.6), and all-cause mortality (RR = 3.0; 95% CI, 2.5 to 3.7). A major independent effect of diabetes persisted in multivariate analyses after simultaneous control for other known coronary risk factors (for these end points, RR [95% CI] = 3.1 [2.3 to 4.2], 3.0 [1.6 to 5.7], 3.0 [1.9 to 4.8], and 1.9 [1.4 to 2.4], respectively). The absolute excess coronary risk due to diabetes was greater in the presence of other risk factors, including cigarette smoking, hypertension, and obesity. These prospective data indicate that maturity-onset clinical diabetes is a strong determinant of coronary heart disease, ischemic stroke, and cardiovascular mortality among middle-aged women. The adverse effect of diabetes is amplified in the presence of other cardiovascular risk factors, many of which are modifiable.