n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in milk is associate to weight gain and growth in premature infants

Background  

Linoleic 18:2 (n-6) and α-linolenic 18:3 (n-3) essential fatty acids and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) are essential nutrients for growth and neonatal development. Consumption of preformed n-3 LC-PUFA has been shown to increase gestational duration and to decrease the incidence of premature birth in human studies. This study evaluated the association of essential fatty acids and LC-PUFA in breast milk on the growth of premature children (weight, height and head circumference).     

Dietary trans fatty acids affect the essential fatty-acid concentration of rat milk

Increasing efforts have been made to determine the distribution and concentration of trans fatty acids in milk, due to the importance of lipids in infant growth and development. In general, trans fatty acid concentration of milk reflects trans fatty acid intake, but insufficient data are available to assess the effects of dietary trans fatty acids on maternal milk. Thus, controlled studies are needed to establish whether there is a dose-response relationship and whether trans fatty acids could affect the concentration of essential fatty acids (EFA), long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and the (n-6)/(n-3) ratio in milk. Three groups of six rats each were fed for 10 wk one of three diets differing in trans fatty acid concentration (Control, 0 mol/100 mol; high trans concentration (H), 14.5 mol/100 mol; very high trans concentration (VH), 30 mol/100 mol), but containing the same proportions of linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids and a ratio of 18:2(n-6)/18:3(n-3) of about 7:1. Trans fatty acids were incorporated into maternal milk in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, rats fed trans isomers had greater linoleic acid levels than controls. The proportion of alpha-linolenic acid in milk was lower in the VH group, and the (n-6)/(n-3) cis PUFA ratio in milk of the VH group was greater than that in controls. Total long-chain PUFA levels did not differ among groups. These results suggest that high intakes of trans fatty acids affect the EFA concentration but not that of long-chain PUFA of rat milk, provided that EFA are supplied in sufficient amounts.     

Dietary trans fatty acids combined with a marginal essential fatty acid status during the pre- and postnatal periods do not affect growth or brain fatty acids but may alter behavioral development in B6D2F(2) mice

The objective of this study was to investigate whether dietary trans fatty acids (TFA) during the pre- and postnatal periods would exacerbate the effects of marginal essential fatty acid (EFA) status on growth, brain long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) and behavioral development in B6D2F(2) mice. Pregnant B6D2F(1) females were randomly assigned to one of the following three diets: marginal EFA plus 22% trans 18:1 (mEFA + TFA); marginal EFA (mEFA); and control (CON). The total 18:1 content in all diets was similar. The offspring were weaned and maintained on the same diets. Both the mEFA and mEFA + TFA groups had reduced growth and brain weight compared with CON, but did not differ from one another. As expected, the mEFA and mEFA + TFA groups had reduced docosahexaenoic acid [DHA; 22:6(n-3)]) and increased 22:5(n-6) concentrations in brain phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) compared with the CON group, but again did not differ from one another. Reversal learning in the T-water maze was significantly slower in the mEFA + TFA groups compared with the mEFA group and both were slower than the CON group. These findings illustrate that TFA combined with a marginal EFA status do not exacerbate the effects of marginal EFA status on growth or brain LC-PUFA. However, long-term effects of dietary TFA during the pre- and postnatal period on behavioral development and neural function should be investigated in future studies.     

Serum fatty acids and breast cancer incidence

Fatty acid composition of the diet may be essential to the development of breast cancer. We studied the ability of several fatty acids of serum total lipids to predict breast cancer incidence in a case-control study nested within a longitudinal population study. The proportions of fatty acids in serum total lipids were determined from stored serum samples collected at baseline for 127 incident breast cancer cases and 242 matched controls. Women with a higher proportion of total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in serum had a reduced risk of breast cancer. The odds ratio (OR) between the highest and lowest tertiles of serum PUFA was 0.31 (95% confidence interval, CI = 0.12-0.77). This association was mainly due to n-6 PUFAs and especially to linoleic acid. The ORs were 0.35 (CI = 0.14-0.84) and 0.29 (CI = 0.12-0.73), respectively. Of the monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), higher trans-11-18:1 levels were related to an increased breast cancer risk (OR = 3.69, CI = 1.35-10.06). The association was stronger in postmenopausal than in premenopausal women. The present study suggests that higher serum proportions of the n-6 PUFA linoleic acid and lower proportions of the MUFA trans-11-18:1 fatty acid predict a reduced incidence of breast cancer.     

N-3 fatty acids reduced trans fatty acids retention and increased docosahexaenoic acid levels in the brain

Introduction: The levels of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6) are critical for the normal structure and function of the brain. Trans fatty acids (TFA) and the source of the dietary fatty acids (FA) interfere with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) biosynthesis.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of TFA supplementation in diets containing different proportions of n-9, n-6, and n-3 FA on the brain FA profile, including the retention of TFA, LC-PUFA levels, and n-6/n-3 PUFA ratios. These parameters were also investigated in the liver, considering that LC-PUFA are mainly bioconverted from their dietary precursors in this tissue and transported by serum to the brain. Also, stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD1) and sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c) gene expressions were evaluated.

Methods: Male CF1 mice were fed (16 weeks) diets containing different oils (olive, corn, and rapeseed) with distinct proportions of n-9, n-6, and n-3 FA (55.2/17.2/0.7, 32.0/51.3/0.9, and 61.1/18.4/8.6), respectively, substituted or not with 0.75% of TFA. FA composition of the brain, liver, and serum was assessed by gas chromatography.

Results: TFA were incorporated into, and therefore retained in the brain, liver, and serum. However, the magnitude of retention was dependent on the tissue and type of isomer. In the brain, total TFA retention was lower than 1% in all diets.

Discussion: Dietary n-3 PUFA decreased TFA retention and increased DHA accretion in the brain. The results underscore the importance of the type of dietary FA on the retention of TFA in the brain and also on the changes of the FA profile.     

Fat content, energy value and fatty acid profile of donkey milk during lactation and implications for human nutrition

ABSTRACT: Background and AimsMilk contains numerous nutrients. The content of n-3 fatty acids, the n-6/n-3 ratio, and short- and medium-chain fatty acids may promote positive health effects. In Western societies, cow's milk fat is perceived as a risk factor for health because it is a source of a high fraction of saturated fatty acids. Recently, there has been increasing interest in donkey's milk. In this work, the fat and energetic value and acidic composition of donkey's milk, with reference to human nutrition, and their variations during lactation, were investigated. We also discuss the implications of the acidic profile of donkey's milk on human nutrition. METHODS: Individual milk samples from lactating jennies were collected 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180 and 210days after foaling, for the analysis of fat, proteins and lactose, which was achieved using an infrared milk analyser, and fatty acids composition by gas chromatography. RESULTS: The donkey's milk was characterised by low fat and energetic (1719.2kJ.kg-1) values, a high polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content of mainly alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and linoleic acid (LA), a low n-6 to n-3 FA ratio or LA/ALA ratio, and advantageous values of atherogenic and thrombogenic indices. Among the minor PUFA, docosahesaenoic (DHA), eicosapentanoic (EPA), and arachidonic (AA) acids were present in very small amounts (<1%). In addition, the AA/EPA ratio was low (0.18). The fat and energetic values decreased (P<0.01) during lactation.The fatty acid patterns were affected by the lactation stage and showed a decrease (P<0.01) in saturated fatty acids content and an increase (P<0.01) in the unsaturated fatty acids content. The n-6 to n-3 ratio and the LA/ALA ratio were approximately 2:1, with values <1 during the last period of lactation, suggesting the more optimal use of milk during this period. CONCLUSIONS: The high level of unsaturated/saturated fatty acids and PUFA-n3 content and the low n-6/n-3 ratio suggest the use of donkey's milk as a functional food for human nutrition and its potential utilisation for infant nutrition as well as adult diets, particular for the elderly.     

Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids improve histological and biochemical alterations in rats with experimental ulcerative colitis.

The aim of the present study was to determine whether dietary intake of monounsaturated (MUFA) and/or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) of the (n- 3) and (n-6) series could improve intestinal damage and reduce inflammation in experimental ulcerative colitis (UC). Rats were treated with 80 mg/kg body of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid and fed for 1 or 2 wk diets enriched in olive oil (OO), fish oil (FO), or purified pig brain phospholipids (BPL), as sources of monounsaturated and PUFA of the (n-3) and (n-3) + (n-6) series. Evaluation of macroscopic and microscopic colonic damage was assessed. Ultrastructural and histologic changes were analyzed as well as plasma and colonic mucosa fatty acid profiles and some biochemical markers of injury and inflammation [alkaline phosphatase (AP), mieloperoxidase (MPO), prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) and leukotriene B(4)]. Fatty acid profiles of both plasma and mucosa mostly reflected the dietary fatty acid composition. Plasma MUFA proportions were higher in UC animals fed the OO diet compared with FO or BPL groups 1 and 2 wk and (n-3) long chain PUFA (LC-PUFA) were higher in the FO than in the OO and BPL groups. At 1 wk, UC led to lower MUFA mucosa levels and (n-3)LC-PUFA were higher in the FO group compared with the OO and BPL groups. Rats with UC fed FO at 1 wk showed significantly less macroscopic and microscopic colonic damage. They also have lower AP and MPO activities and PGE(2) levels compared with the OO and BPL groups and showed enhanced histological repair, less necrotic areas within the mucosa, and more goblet cells with mature mucin granules. These results suggest that the use of balanced diets containing (n-3) LC-PUFA could ameliorate the inflammation and mucosal damage in UC.     

Development of rabbit meat products fortified with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

Rabbit meat is a highly digestible, tasty, low-calorie food, often recommended by nutritionists over other meats. Currently research in the rabbit sector is interested in developing feeding strategies aiming to further increase the nutritional value of rabbit meat as a "functional food" by including n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), vitamins and antioxidants in rabbit diets and assessing their effects on both raw and stored/processed meat quality properties. Our recent studies indicate that the dietary inclusion from 3 to 6% of linseed might be considered as a way to achieve the enrichment of the meat with α-linolenic acid and to guarantee satisfactory product stability during further processing and storage. Considering that 6% dietary linseed corresponds to a n-3 PUFA content of 8.5% of the total fatty acids and a lipid content of 4.7 g/100 g of leg meat, a content of 396 mg n-3 PUFA/100g meat can be estimated, which represents about 19% of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) for n-3 PUFA.     

Ingestion of a single serving of saury alters postprandial levels of plasma n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and long-chain monounsaturated fatty acids in healthy human adults

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Saury oil contains considerable amounts of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) with long aliphatic tails (>18C atoms). Ingestion of saury oil reduces the risk of developing metabolic syndrome concomitant with increases in n-3 PUFA and long-chain MUFA in plasma and organs of mice. We therefore evaluated changes in postprandial plasma fatty acid levels and plasma parameters in healthy human subjects after ingestion of a single meal of saury. FINDINGS: Five healthy human adults ingested 150 g of grilled saury. Blood was collected before the meal and at 2, 6, and 24 hr after the meal, and plasma was prepared. Plasma levels of eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid, and long-chain MUFA (C20:1 and C22:1 isomers combined) increased significantly throughout the postprandial period compared with the pre-meal baseline. Postprandial plasma insulin concentration increased notably, and plasma levels of glucose and free fatty acids decreased significantly and subsequently returned to the pre-meal levels. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that a single saury meal may alter the postprandial plasma levels of n-3 PUFA and long-chain MUFA in healthy human subjects.     

不同过敏体质母亲母乳中PUFAs与免疫因子的差异及相互性研究

目的 探讨不同过敏体质母亲母乳中多不饱和脂肪酸(PUFAs)和免疫因子的改变,同时分析体内多不饱和脂肪酸组成对免疫因子的影响。方法 随机选取符合标准的80例母亲进入课题,产后2周和4周收集母乳,问卷调查母亲过敏史。采用高效毛细气相色谱分析技术检测母乳中脂肪酸浓度,分别采用酶联免疫吸附法和BioPlex悬液芯片技术测定母乳中免疫因子sCD14(soluble CD14)、IgE和IL-1β(interleukin-1β)、Eotaxin浓度。结果 过敏性皮炎母亲2周母乳ALA(α -linolenic acid,ALA)和n-6 PUFAs代谢系数(n-6LCPUFAs/LA)低于非过敏母亲,2周和4周母乳中LA/ALA(linoleic acid,LA)均高于非过敏母亲(P<0.05)。过敏性鼻炎母亲2周母乳ALA、EPA(eicosapentaenoic acid,EPA)、DHA(docosahexaenoic acid,DHA)含量均低于非过敏母亲(P<0.05)。无论过敏母亲还是非过敏母亲,母乳中多种n-3PUFAs(ALA、EPA、C20:3n-3)与sCD14呈正相关,与IgE负相关(P<0.05);母乳中多种n-6PUFAs(C18:3n-6,C20:3n-6,C22:2n-6)与sCD14呈负相关,与Eotaxin和IL-1β正相关(P<0.05)。结论 不同过敏体质母亲与非过敏母亲母乳多不饱和脂肪酸组成存在差异;体内多不饱和脂肪酸组成对免疫因子的分泌具有重要影响。     

Polyunsaturated fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid isomers in breast milk are associated with plasma non-esterified and erythrocyte membrane fatty acid composition in lactating women

Maternal adipose tissue is a major contributor to breast milk long-chain fatty acids, probably through the pool of plasma NEFA. The fatty acid composition of the erythrocyte membrane (EM) is a biochemical index of the intake of fatty acids not synthesized endogenously and of PUFA and long-chain PUFA fatty acid status. The present study investigated the associations between breast milk fatty acid composition and the composition of plasma NEFA and of EM fatty acids with special reference to PUFA, long-chain PUFA and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). The detailed fatty acid composition of mature breast milk was also reported. Thirty-three healthy, lactating Brazilian women donated milk samples; of these, twenty-four also donated blood samples in an observational cross-sectional study. Breast milk fatty acid composition presented several associations with NEFA and EM composition, which explained most (> or =50 %) of the variability of selected milk PUFA, long-chain PUFA and CLA. Milk CLA was associated with fatty acids that are markers of dairy fat intake in the diet, NEFA and EM. In general, breast milk n-3 fatty acids and CLA, but not n-6 fatty acids, were associated with EM composition, whereas both the n-6 and n-3 fatty acids and CLA in milk were associated with NEFA composition, possibly owing to its role as a direct source of fatty acids for breast milk. These findings emphasize the contribution of the NEFA pool derived from the adipose tissue to the long-chain fatty acid composition of breast milk.     

Lipid content and fatty acid composition in foods commonly consumed by nursing Congolese women: incidences on their essential fatty acid intakes and breast milk fatty acids

The fat content and fatty acid (FA) composition of nearly 40 foods, currendy consumed by 102 nursing Congolese mothers living in Brazzaville, were determined to assess their impact on mothers' essential fatty acid (EFA) intakes and breast milk FA. Data on mothers' milk FA and dietary habits which allowed food selection were recently published (Rocquelin et al., 1998). Most foods were locally produced. Food samples were collected at local markets, bleached if necessary to avoid microbial degradation, and stored at +4°C or-20°C. They were lyophilized upon their arrival in the laboratory before lipid analyses. FA composition of food lipids was determined by capillary gas chromatography. Staple diets included low-fat, high-carbohydrate foods (processed cassava roots, wheat bread) and high-polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) foods: soybean oil (high in 18 : 2 n-6 and α-18 : 3 n-3), bushbutter (dacryodes edulis), peanuts, avocado (high in fat and 18 : 2 n-6), freshwater and salt-water fish (high in LC n-3 and/or n-6 PUFA), and leafy green vegetables (low in fat but very high in α-18 : 3 n-3). Their frequent consumption by nursing mothers provided enough EFA to meet requirements due to lactation. It also explains why mothers' breast milk was rich in C8-C14 saturated FA (26% of total FA) and in n-6, n-3 PUFA (respectively 15.0% and 2.4% of total FA) highly profitable for breastfed infants' development. From this point of view, dietary habits of Congolese mothers have to be sustained for they are more adequate than most Western-type diets.     

Role of trans fatty acids in health and challenges to their reduction in Indian foods

Evidence indicates that dietary trans fatty acids (TFA) obtained from partially hydrogenated vegetable oils (PHVO) increase the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). Studies have implicated TFA in increasing the risk and incidence of diabetes. Furthermore, TFA may compromise fetal and early infant growth and development. In rats, partial substitution of either linoleic acid (18:2 n-6) with saturated fatty acids (SFA, 6 en %) or SFA with TFA (3 en % from vanaspati) decreased peripheral insulin sensitivity, but these effects were greater in TFA group. Since a large proportion of Indian population is insulin resistant, the TFA content in Indian edible fats/oils and foods should be reduced. Vanaspati (PHVO) provides up to 40% TFA, is used in Indian cooking and in the preparation of commercially fried, processed, bakery, ready-to-eat and street foods. TFA in biscuits and sweets range 30-40 and 6-26% of total fatty acids respectively. There is no regulation on TFA content in vanaspati, bakery fats and shortenings. Reduction in Indian edible fats/ oils and foods can be achieved by: a) specifying limits of TFA in vanaspati, bakery fats and shortenings by upgrading technology; b) advocating the substitution of natural plant oils containing lower percent of polyunsaturated fatty acids for PHVO. Indian edible oil industry needs to develop and adopt alternative technologies to produce zero TFA. Consumer education about negative health effects of TFA and providing food based guidelines to reduce TFA consumption in the entire population need to be actively pursued.     

Influences of postnatal age and dietary nucleotides on plasma fatty acids in the weanling rat.

Dietary nucleotides seem to play a number of physiologic roles during early life. They are improved in the maintenance of the immune system, intestinal maturation, and lipid metabolism. Nucleotides affect the conversion of essential fatty acids into their long-chain polyunsaturated (PUFA) derivatives in both preterm and at-term newborn infants. This work examines the effect of postnatal age and dietary nucleotides on the fatty acid composition of total plasma lipids and lipid fractions in the rat. Weanling rats (21 days old) were divided into three groups. The first group was killed, and the other two groups were fed a standard semipurified diet, and the same diet supplemented with 250 mg each of CMP, UMP, AMP, GMP, and IMP per 100 g of diet for 4 weeks. Advancing postnatal age led to an increase of total plasma fatty acids, especially saturated, and PUFA of the n-6 series, whereas PUFA of the n-3 series decreased. The fatty acid profile of plasma phospholipids (PL) exhibited minor changes, although there was a tendency to show lower levels of saturates and PUFA of the n-3 series and increased levels of PUFA of the n-6 series. Cholesteryl esters showed a response similar to that of PL, although the increase in arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) was significant. For triglycerides, linoleic acid (18:2n-6) and monounsaturates increased their levels, whereas saturates decreased. Dietary nucleotides mediated a significant increase in total plasma fatty acids, namely monounsaturated fatty acids and PUFA of both n-6 and n-3 series as compared with the control group. The relative fatty acid composition of PL and cholesteryl esters was mostly unaffected.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Nutritional Importance of Selected Fresh Fishes,Shrimps and Mollusks to Meet Compliance with Nutritional Guidelines of n-3 LC-PUFA Intake in Spain

Fishery products are the main source of dietary n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA). Following the European Commission’s request to address the risks and benefits of seafood consumption, and taking into account the great variability of nutrient and contaminant levels in fishery products, the present work aims to estimate the n-3 LC-PUFA provided per serving of selected fishes, shrimps and mollusks that are commonly consumed in Spain. This would enable the establishment of a risk–benefit analysis of fish consumption and provide recommendations for fish intake to comply with nutritional guidelines of n-3 LC-PUFA intake. We confirmed high variation in the pattern and contents of fatty acids for different species. n-6 PUFA were minor fatty acids, whereas palmitic (C16:0), oleic (C18:1 n-9), and mainly eicosapentaenoic (C20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic (C22:6 n-3) acids were the major fatty acids in the sample. Therefore, consumption of 2–3 servings per week of a variety of fishery products may contribute to compliance with the recommended daily n-3 LC-PUFA intake while maintaining an adequate balance to avoid contaminant-derived potential risks (metals and others). Taking the fatty acid content of fishery products described in this study into consideration, it is advisable to include one serving of fatty fish per week in order to meet recommended n-3 LC-PUFA levels.     

Maternal diet and exercise: effects on long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations in breast milk

BACKGROUND: Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) are essential for infant growth and development. The amount of long-chain PUFA in breast milk depends on maternal diet and body stores. Because exercise increases mobilization and utilization of fatty acids, maternal activity may also influence the amount of LC-PUFA in breast milk. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of exercise on alpha-linolenic acid (LNA), linoleic acid (LA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and arachidonic acid (AA) concentrations in maternal plasma and breast milk and to determine if lactating women consume adequate amounts of LC-PUFA to compensate for those used for energy during exercise. DESIGN: LC-PUFA in plasma and breast milk were measured at 12 weeks postpartum in exercising and sedentary women. Dietary intake was recorded for 3 days. A subsample of women participated in exercise and rest sessions to examine the acute effects of exercise on breast milk LC-PUFA. RESULTS: There were no differences in dietary intake between the two groups. Mean intake (+/-standard error of the mean) of LA was 11.05+/-1.39 and 9.34+/-0.97 and LNA was 0.96+/-0.12 and 0.82+/-0.09 g/day by the sedentary and exercise groups, respectively. These amounts are close to the Adequate Intakes of LA and LNA for lactation (13 and 1.3 g/day, respectively). No differences were found in LC-PUFA in plasma and breast milk between groups. After 30 minutes of exercise, there was a trend for an increase in LA and LNA concentrations in breast milk, with no change in DHA, EPA, and AA concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that women consuming adequate amounts of LC-PUFA can exercise moderately without decreasing the LC-PUFA in their breast milk.     

Are n-3 fatty acids essential nutrients for fetal and infant development?

Recent research indicates that n-3 fatty acids (FAs) are essential nutrients in early human development. In human infants, nonhuman primates, and animal models, the n-3 FA, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) is highly concentrated in brain and retinal tissues and accumulates during late fetal and early neonatal life. Diets deficient in n-3 FAs are associated with reduced levels of DHA in erythrocytes and brain and retinal tissues and with abnormalities in retinal function that may be irreversible. The precursor of DHA, α-linolenic acid (LNA, 18:3n-3), may be an inadequate substitute for DHA because LNA may not be converted to DHA in sufficient amounts to meet an infant's needs. Premature infants lose DHA from their tissues unless they are fed human milk or formula supplemented with DHA. fish and shellfish are the main food sources of DHA. Women who consume fish have more DHA in their breast milk than do those who do not eat seafood. Infant formulas contain only LNA as a source of n-3 FAs. Pregnant and nursing women should be encouraged to consume seafood on a regular basis during pregnancy and lactation to furnish DHA for their infants.     

Unsaturated fatty acids.

There is good scientific evidence that dietary fatty acid composition is involved in the aetiology of many diseases. Increasing the supply of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) may reduce the risk of CHD. Several scientific organizations (for example, see Department of Health, 1991, 1994; British Nutrition Foundation, 1992; Scientific Committee for Food, 1993; Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization, 1998) have made recommendations for n-3 PUFA; however, there is a high degree of variation both in terms of the type and amount of n-3 PUFA (up to 7-fold). This variation reflects the different scientific axioms which underlie the different recommendations. Optimal nutrition may be defined in terms of the level of a nutrient required to avoid deficiency, or the amount required to have an effect on biomarkers and functional indicators of nutrient intake, or the level of a nutrient which prevents disease. Functional biomarkers of n-3 PUFA include plasma, platelet and erythrocyte phospholipid-n-3 PUFA levels. Plasma triacylglycerol concentrations represent a functional indicator of n-3 PUFA because n-3 PUFA exert a consistent hypotriacylglycerolaemic effect which is dose-dependent and persistent. In terms of disease status, epidemiological studies have demonstrated that the incidence of CHD is inversely associated with consumption of n-3 PUFA. Despite the health benefits of n-3 PUFA, the mean daily intake falls far short of most of the recommendations. Increasing fish intake is the most obvious way to increase n-3 PUFA intake. However, a large percentage (up to 65) of the population do not eat fish. Thus, there is a need for alternative sources of n-3 PUFA, such as functional foods, whose unique fatty acid composition could fortify staple foods thereby promoting optimal levels of n-3 PUFA intake.     

Dietary intake of fats and fatty acids in the Korean population: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2013

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESThe aim of this study was to estimate average total fat and fatty acid intakes as well as identify major food sources using data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) VI-1 (2013).SUBJECTS/METHODSTotal fat and fatty acid intakes were estimated using 24-hour dietary recall data on 7,048 participants aged ≥ 3 years from the KNHANES VI-1 (2013). Data included total fat, saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), n-3 fatty acid (n-3 FA), and n-6 fatty acid (n-6 FA) levels. Population means and standard errors of the mean were weighted in order to produce national estimates and separated based on sex, age, income, as well as residential region. Major food sources of fat, SFA, MUFA, PUFA, n-3 FA, and n-6 FA were identified based on mean consumption amounts of fat and fatty acids in each food.RESULTSThe mean intake of total fat was 48.0 g while mean intakes of SFA, MUFA, PUFA, n-3 FA, and n-6 FA were 14.4 g, 15.3 g, 11.6 g, 1.6 g, and 10.1 g, respectively. Intakes of MUFA and SFA were each higher than that of PUFA in all age groups. Pork was the major source of total fat, SFA, and MUFA, and soybean oil was the major source of PUFA. Milk and pork were major sources of SFA in subjects aged 3-11 years and ≥ 12 years, respectively. Perilla seed oil and soybean oil were main sources of n-3 FA in subjects aged ≥ 50 years and aged < 50 years, respectively.CONCLUSIONSEstimation of mean fatty acid intakes of this study using nationally represented samples of the Korean population could be useful for developing and evaluating national nutritional policies.