The health-related microbiological quality of bottled drinking water sold in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

The consumption of bottled and plastic-bagged drinking water in Tanzania has increased largely because of the deteriorating quality of tap water. It is uncertain whether these water products are safe for drinking. In this study, the microbiological quality of bottled and plastic-bagged drinking water sold in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, was investigated. One hundred and thirty samples representing 13 brands of bottled water collected from shops, supermarkets and street vendors were analysed for total coliform and faecal coliform organisms as well as heterotrophic bacteria. These were compared with 61 samples of tap water. Heterotrophic bacteria were detected in 92% of the bottled water samples analysed. Total and faecal coliform bacteria were present in 4.6% and 3.6%, respectively, of samples analysed with a tendency for higher contamination rates in plastic-bagged drinking water. Microbiological quality of tap water was found to be worse compared with bottled water, with 49.2% and 26.2% of sampling points showing the presence of total coliform and faecal coliform organisms, respectively. The results suggest caution and vigilance to avert outbreaks of waterborne diseases from these types of drinking water.     

Knowledge of measures to safeguard harvested rainwater quality in rural domestic households

Given the possibility of waterborne diseases caused by inappropriate rainwater harvesting systems, a survey was conducted in Uganda to assess existing knowledge of both physical and non-physical measures that safeguard harvested rainwater. Households who had received rainwater tanks were assessed on issues related to harvested rainwater quality. The study shows that 84% of respondents were aware of various sources of rainwater contamination, but only 5% were aware that they needed to adjust use of rainwater, depending on whether they cleaned the tank or not. Most of the respondents were not aware that gutter cleaning was necessary to improve water quality. Indeed, as the water from the collection surface is channelled through gutters, a number of measures need to be taken to control the entry of contaminations and subsequent growth of pathogens in the tank, e.g. first flush diverts, installation of filters, chemical use and mesh cleaning. The majority, however, did not take adequate care of the gutters and this impacts on health and social livelihood. Overall, the findings emphasize the need to provide more information to households when installing water harvesting tanks to ensure that the harvested rainwater is of high quality.     

武汉市农村生活饮用水化学污染物健康风险评价

目的 了解武汉市农村生活饮用水中污染物浓度水平,并通过健康风险评价初步评估水体污染物对成人及儿童身体健康的潜在危害度。 方法 对2017年武汉市农村饮用水中17个指标的浓度进行调查,并利用美国环保局推荐的风险评估模型进行健康风险评价。 结果 武汉市农村饮用水中5种化学致癌物和12种非致癌物所引起的成人和儿童总健康风险分别为2.58×10^-5/a和3.61×10^-5/a,其中化学致癌物的健康风险值大于非致癌物的健康风险值,占总健康风险的99.99%。化学致癌物所致成人和儿童的健康风险值由高到低均依次为铬(六价)＞砷＞镉＞三氯甲烷＞四氯化碳,非致癌物所致成人和儿童的非致癌健康风险值由高到低均依次为铅＞氟化物＞铜＞汞＞硝酸盐＞锰＞铁=锌＞硒＞氰化物＞氨氮＞挥发性酚。化学致癌物和非致癌物对儿童的健康风险均高于成人。 结论 武汉市农村饮用水中污染物所致成人和儿童总健康风险在美国环保局和国际放射防护委员会推荐的最大可接受风险度(1×10^-4/a和5×10^-5/a)范围内。     

广西农村家庭饮水行为现状及影响因素分析

目的了解农村家庭饮水行为现状及影响因素,探讨除烧开水以外有效的饮用水处理方法。方法通过面对面问卷调查方式,于2013—2014年对广西2个县的450户家庭进行调查,收集十类与农村家庭饮用水相关的指标情况,多因素logistic回归分析农村家庭饮用水行为的影响因素。结果调查的450户农村家庭中,47.5%的家庭烧开水,35%喝桶装水,17.5%喝生水。A县喝开水率显著高于B县(χ2=9.547,P=0.002)。多因素logistic回归分析结果显示,影响农村居民烧开水的因素包括知识水平(OR=0.290,95%CI=0.097~0.865)、污水处理(OR=0.295,95%CI=0.112~0.776)、储存水(OR=0.059,95%CI=0.013~0.269)、喝开水态度(OR=0.001,95%CI=0.000~0.005)。结论农村地区用电水壶烧开水比例不高,存在一定比例的其他燃料烧水、桶装水和生水,且微生物超标较高。     

2015年重庆市农村集中式供水化学污染指标健康风险评价

目的 评估2015年重庆市农村集中式供水中化学污染物对人体健康存在的潜在危害,为风险管理提供科学依据。方法 选择22个区县,每个区县选择70%的乡镇,每个乡镇选择1~2个农村集中式供水监测点,于2015年丰水期采集出厂水水样,按照美国环保署健康风险评价模型对17项化学污染经饮水途径所致的健康风险进行评价。结果 重庆农村集中式供水出厂水年均健康总风险为1.59×10^-6(a^-1),非致癌健康风险占总风险比例不到1%,风险主要来源于水中化学致癌物铬、砷和三氯甲烷,占健康总风险的比例依次为48.5%、45.4%、5.2%;重庆市农村集中式供水出厂水健康风险在国际辐射防护委员会推荐的最大可接受风险水平范围5×10^-5(a^-1)内,但又略超过瑞典环境保护局规定的最大可接受风险水平1×10^-6(a^-1)。结论 重庆市农村集中式供水出厂水健康总风险超过了瑞典环保局推荐的可接受风险水平,需要引起重视。对于健康总风险超过1×10^-6(a^-1)的农村集中式供水,要继续加强对相应化学污染物的监测和控制。在重庆市农村集中式供水风险管理中,应优先控制的污染指标依次为铬、砷及三氯甲烷指标。     

Environmental health outcomes and exposure risks among at-risk communities living in the Upper Olifants River Catchment,South Africa

Potential exposure to water and air pollution and associated health impacts of three low-income communities in the Upper Olifants River Catchment, South Africa, was investigated through a cross-sectional epidemiological study comprising a household survey. Water samples were collected and analysed for microbial indicators and pathogens. Ambient air-monitoring included some of the criteria pollutants, as well as mercury and manganese. Associations between environmental exposure and health outcomes were analysed by means of logistic regression. Despite poor water and air quality episodes, the communities’ self-perceived health was good with relatively low prevalence of reported health outcomes. Hygiene practices with respect to water collection and storage were often poor, and most likely contributed to the regularly contaminated water storage containers. Community proximity to the polluted stream was associated with increased prevalence in adverse health outcomes. This paper reports on preliminary results and additional multivariate analyses are necessary to further understand study results.     

Relationships between poverty and AIDS Illness in South Africa: an investigation of urban and rural households in KwaZulu-Natal

The association between poverty and HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa remains contested. A better understanding of the relationship between the prevalence of poverty and the disease is essential for addressing prevention, treatment, and care. The present study interrogates this relationship, using a cross-sectional survey of 2477 households in urban and rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Structural equation modelling was employed to estimate the correlations between poverty and AIDS illness. The analysis revealed a correlation of r_pb?=?0.23, denoting that a higher level of household poverty was associated with a higher likelihood of being AIDS-unwell. Post hoc t-test showed that receipt of a disability grant by AIDS-affected households was associated with significantly lower poverty, compared to AIDS-affected households not receiving the grant, t(654)?=?3.67, p?r_pb?=?0.15 (p?r_pb?=?0.16 (p?相似文献   

Prevalence of Acanthamoeba and other naked amoebae in South Florida domestic water

The purpose was to identify the prevalence of naked amoebae in tap water in south Florida to ascertain the risk of amoebal infections of the cornea in contact lens wearers.     

海南省农村生活饮用水卫生现状调查

目的 了解海南省农村生活饮用水的卫生现状。方法 在海南省18个市县随机抽取10个监测县,在每个监测县选择10户居民家庭作为监测点,采用统一的调查表对监测点的水源类型、供水方式、覆盖人口等进行调查;于2009年丰(7-9月)、枯水期(1-3月)进行水样的采集、检验和评价。结果 海南省农村生活饮用水水源主要以地下水为主,供水方式以集中式供水为主;共采集水样246件,合格44件,合格率仅为17.9%,各指标合格率由低至高依次为总大肠菌群(35.4%)<菌落总数(80.1%)P<0.01);丰水期水样的合格率为19.2%,略高于枯水期合格率为16.5%。结论 微生物污染是海南省农村生活饮用水水质合格率偏低的主要原因。     

2014—2017年泗洪县农村集中式供水水质分析

目的 为及时掌握泗洪县农村饮用水水质及其动态变化,为卫生监管和保障饮水安全提供预见性资料。 方法 按照《生活饮用水标准检验方法》《生活饮用水卫生标准》对全县所有集中式供水水质进行检测和评价。 结果 共检测水样1 529份,合格1 189份,合格率77.76%;出厂水和末梢水合格率差异无统计学意义(χ2=0.67,P＞0.05);枯水期水样合格率明显高于丰水期,差异有统计学意义(χ2=34.66,P<0.001);检测47 868项次,合格率98.571%,枯水期项次合格率明显高于丰水期,差异有统计学意义(χ2=117.71,P<0.001),主要不合格项目为菌落总数、游离余氯、总大肠菌群、浑浊度、耐热大肠菌群等13项。 结论 泗洪县农村集中式供水存在诸多安全问题,实施区域供水后得到明显好转;建立长效水质监测机制是保障农村饮水安全的重要举措。     

巢湖市农村生活饮用水现状调查

目的:了解农村生活饮用水现状,为加快农村自来水发展提供可靠依据.方法:对巢湖市农村镇区、行政村进行普查,并进行系统分析.结果:巢湖市农村总人口4323583人.有集中式供水设施229个,饮用人口1466590人,占33.92%;分散式供水饮用人口2856993人,占66.08%,水源类型包括深水井、浅水井、泉水、江河湖泊水库水、塘水和其他,其中,74.77%的人饮用浅井水.结论:巢湖市农村集中式供水尚不够普及,应加快发展,同时应加强监管.     

肇庆市农村地区饮用水健康风险评价

目的 初步评估肇庆市农村地区饮用水部分项目健康风险,为饮用水风险管理和决策提供依据。方法 于2016年对全市农村饮用水铬、砷、镉、三氯甲烷、四氯化碳、铅、铜、汞、铁、锌、铝、硒、锰、氰化物、氨氮、氟化物、硝酸盐17个项目进行检测,应用美国环保署推荐的风险评估模型对上述项目通过饮水途径所引起的健康风险进行评价。结果 17个项目通过饮水途径引起的总健康风险为2.92×10-5/年,水中化学致癌物所致的健康风险度大于非致癌物质所致的风险度,占总风险的99.96%。化学致癌物所致健康风险由高至低依次为铬（VI）＞砷＞镉＞四氯化碳＞三氯甲烷,产生的平均个人年风险在2.59×10-5/年 - 3.92×10 - 9/年之间。非化学致癌物所致健康风险由高至低依次为铝＞铜＞氟化物＞铅＞硝酸盐＞锰＞汞、铁＞锌＞硒＞氰化物＞氨氮,产生的平均个人年风险在6.32×10 - 9/年 - 6.52×10 - 12/年之间。结论 肇庆市农村地区饮用水健康总风险低于国家辐射防护委员会推荐的5×10 - 5/年,应把饮用水中致癌物,特别是铬（VI）作为优先管理对象。     

某县农村集中式供水卫生监督管理现状及对策分析

目的：找出农村集中式供水卫生监督过程中存在的问题,为有效的农村饮用水卫生监督管理提供参考依据。方法：采用问卷调查、现场观察法对某县所有农村集中式供水单位及其从业人员和卫生监督所卫生监督人员进行专项调查。结果：共调查19家集中式供水单位,均持有卫生许可证;14家设定了水源防护区;2家生产设备、设施基本满足相应的生产规模要求,工艺流程合理;18家未能按规范要求进行水质自检和向卫生监督部门报告;6家未进行涉及生活饮用水卫生安全的产品索证;2008年均接受1次经常性卫生监督;管供水人员初中及以下文化程度占66.3%;管供水人员和卫生监督员生活饮用水相关法律法规知识得分分别为56.09分和88.13分。饮用水卫生监督人员和监管单位的比例为1∶10.5。结论：农村地区集中式供水单位存在诸多问题,而对其却缺乏有力的卫生监督,需合理地配置卫生人力资源和采取适宜的监督管理体系。     

Contamination of rural surface and ground water by endosulfan in farming areas of the Western Cape,South Africa

Background

In South Africa there is little data on environmental pollution of rural water sources by agrochemicals.

Methods

This study investigated pesticide contamination of ground and surface water in three intensive agricultural areas in the Western Cape: the Hex River Valley, Grabouw and Piketberg. Monitoring for endosulfan and chlorpyrifos at low levels was conducted as well as screening for other pesticides.

Results

The quantification limit for endosulfan was 0.1 μg/L. Endosulfan was found to be widespread in ground water, surface water and drinking water. The contamination was mostly at low levels, but regularly exceeded the European Drinking Water Standard of 0.1 μg/L. The two most contaminated sites were a sub-surface drain in the Hex River Valley and a dam in Grabouw, with 0.83 ± 1.0 μg/L (n = 21) and 3.16 ± 3.5 μg/L (n = 13) average endosulfan levels respectively. Other pesticides including chlorpyrifos, azinphos-methyl, fenarimol, iprodione, deltamethrin, penconazole and prothiofos were detected. Endosulfan was most frequently detected in Grabouw (69%) followed by Hex River (46%) and Piketberg (39%). Detections were more frequent in surface water (47%) than in groundwater (32%) and coincided with irrigation, and to a lesser extent, to spraying and trigger rains. Total dietary endosulfan intake calculated from levels found in drinking water did not exceed the Joint WHO/FAO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR) criteria.

Conclusion

The study has shown the need for monitoring of pesticide contamination in surface and groundwater, and the development of drinking water quality standards for specific pesticides in South Africa.

     

万州区农村村级集中式供水卫生状况调查及其应对策略

目的：了解三峡库区腹地万州区农村村级集中式供水卫生状况,分析农村居民饮用水存在问题,为政府及有关部门卫生管理决策提供科学依据。方法：按照机随抽样原则,于2010年4-9月对万州区100家农村村级集中式供水单位开展现场卫生学调查,对其出厂水与末梢水进行抽样检验,对其水质依据国家GB 5749-2006《生活饮用水卫生标准》进行评价。结果：万州区农村村级集中式供水检测水样总合格率1.75%（7/400）,感官与化学指标合格率78.5%（314/400）,毒理学指标合格率100%（400/400）,微生物指标合格率11.75%（47/400）,消毒指标合格率仅6.5%（26/400）。结论：万州区农村村级集中式供水水质合格率极低,农村饮用水安全存在隐患。建议各级政府及相关部门要高度重视,各农村村级用水协会要加大饮用水监管力度,建立饮用水安全卫生保障机制,着力落实饮用水消毒措施,确保农村居民饮用水安全卫生,防止或杜绝介水疾病的发生。     

广西农村集中式供水水质安全风险分析

目的了解广西农村集中式供水水质安全现状,为政府及有关部门决策提供科学依据。方法从广西农村饮用水水质卫生监测网络系统导出2008—2013年农村集中式供水水质监测调查数据。供水信息通过查阅资料、现场调查等方式收集,水样采集、保存、运输和检测按《生活饮用水标准检验方法》进行,检测结果按《生活饮用水卫生标准》评价。结果从2008至2013年,广西农村集中式供水人口比例从35.73%上升到61.59%,消毒设备配备率从20.65%上升到69.76%,水质综合合格率从22.13%上升到49.40%。水质感官和一般化学指标、毒理学指标合格率较高,主要存在受微生物污染的风险,同时也发现了大部分供水的氟含量和总硬度偏低。结论广西农村集中供水水质得到一定改善,但仍需加强农村饮水安全工程建设和管理,同时加强对可能影响健康的其它水质安全问题研究。     

Bacterial quality of drinking water stored in containers by boat households in Hue City, Vietnam

Objectives  To examine the bacterial quality of drinking water stored in containers by boat households in the river basin of Hue City, and associated factors. Methods  Ready-to-drink water stored in containers on boats was collected from 766 households. Escherichia coli (E. coli), total coliforms, and Enterobacteriaceae in the water were examined by the rehydratable dry-film plating method. Socioeconomic characteristics, water source, handling practices, and proficiency of disease prevention of individual households were assessed. Results   E. coli, over ten counts of total coliforms, and over ten counts of Enterobacteriaceae were detected in 25.7, 44.5, and 51.5% of 1-ml samples of ready-to-drink water stored in containers on the boats. Bacterial contamination of the water stored in containers by boat households was significantly associated with use of river water as a source of drinking water, non-boiling before storing containers for drinking, and limited proficiency in disease prevention regardless of the influence of socioeconomic characteristics of the households (P < 0.01, P < 0.05, P < 0.01, respectively). Conclusions  Bacterial contamination of ready-to-drink water stored by boat households was indicated. The households’ proficiency in disease prevention buffered contamination. A comprehensive health promotion program with a wide range of contents is required for the communities of boat households.     

Planning for district mental health services in South Africa: a situational analysis of a rural district site

The shift in emphasis to universal primary health care in post-apartheidSouth Africa has been accompanied by a process of decentralizationof mental health services to district level, as set out in thenew Mental Health Care Act, no. 17, of 2002 and the 1997 WhitePaper on the Transformation of the Health System. This studysought to assess progress in South Africa with respect to deinstitutionalizationand the integration of mental health into primary health care,with a view to understanding the resource implications of theseprocesses at district level. A situational analysis in one districtsite, typical of rural areas in South Africa, was conducted,based on qualitative interviews with key stakeholders and theWorld Health Organization's Assessment Instrument for MentalHealth Systems (WHO-AIMS). The findings suggest that the decentralizationprocess remains largely limited to emergency management of psychiatricpatients and ongoing psychopharmacological care of patientswith stabilized chronic conditions. We suggest that, in a similarvein to other low- to middle-income countries, deinstitutionalizationand comprehensive integrated mental health care in South Africais hampered by a lack of resources for mental health care withinthe primary health care resource package, as well as the inefficientuse of existing mental health resources.     

Factors associated with post-treatment E. coli contamination in households practising water treatment: a study of rural Cambodia

The purpose of this study was to assess factors associated with Escherichia coli (E. coli) contamination in rural households in Cambodia that have adopted household water treatment. The following factors were significantly associated (α < 0.05) with apparent E. coli contamination: cleaning the drinking vessel with untreated water, not drying the cup (with a cloth), accessing treated water by the use of a scoop (ref: using a tap), having more than one untreated water storage container, having an untreated water storage container that appeared dirty on the outside, and cows living within 10 m of the household. This study provides further evidence confirming previous studies reporting an association between inadequate cleanliness of water storage containers and household drinking water contamination, and identifies practical recommendations statistically associated with reduced post-treatment E. coli contamination in the household setting in rural Cambodia.     

中国卫生总费用快速推算研究: 以2011年为例

  目的  预测我国卫生总费用的增长趋势,分析各类医疗机构卫生总费用的发展阶段。  方法  收集我国1990 — 2015年卫生总费用序列数据,使用SPSS的曲线估计拟合logistic函数模型。  结果  预测到2020年前后,我国卫生总费用增长出现拐点,由凹增函数变为凸增函数。在2009年之前我国卫生总费用处于渐增期;2009 — 2030年处于快增期;从2030年以后,进入缓增期。城市医院的增长拐点预计发生在2010年左右,快速增长期在2000 — 2021年,持续22年;县医院的增长拐点预计发生在2026年左右,快速增长期在2016 — 2036年,持续21年;卫生院的增长拐点预计发生在2019年左右,快速增长期发在2006 — 2032年,持续27年。  结论  流向各类医疗机构的卫生总费用极不平衡,城市医院率先进入快速增长期,卫生院紧随其后,而县医院最晚进入。提示卫生政策制定者应遵循卫生总费用发展变化规律,根据各级医疗机构费用发展阶段制定不同的政策。