Carotenoid Profile in Maternal/Cord Plasma and Changes in Breast Milk along Lactation and Its Association with Dietary Intake: A Longitudinal Study in a Coastal City in Southern China

In this study, changes of carotenoids in breast milk were observed longitudinally for up to one year. Our study aimed to analyze the profile of carotenoids in breast milk and maternal/cord plasma and its correlation with dietary intake in Guangzhou. Plasma and breast milk samples of five stages during lactation (i.e., colostrum; transitional milk; and early, medium, and late mature milk) were collected from lactating mothers. The food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was used for collecting data on dietary intake in the corresponding stages. Levels of lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, β-carotene, and lycopene were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. We found that the total carotenoid level decreased gradually with the extension of lactation and eventually stabilized. Among them, the content of lutein increased from colostrum to transitional milk and decreased thereafter until it plateaued in the mature milk. Furthermore, lutein was reported as the dominant nutrient in maternal plasma, cord plasma, transitional milk, and mature milk at up to 400 days postpartum, while beta-carotene was predominant in colostrum. The content of β-carotenoid in middle and late mature breast milk was related to dietary intake (r = 1.690, p < 0.05). Carotenoid level in cord blood was lower than that in the mother’s plasma and was related to the carotenoid intake in the mother’s diet. Correlation of carotenoids between maternal and umbilical cord blood, breast milk, and maternal blood could well reflect the transport of carotenoids. These findings may help to guide mothers’ diets during breastfeeding.     

Proportions of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Umbilical Cord Blood at Birth Are Related to Atopic Eczema Development in the First Year of Life

Atopic eczema, the most common atopic disease in infants, may pave the way for sensitization and allergy later in childhood. Fatty acids have immune-regulating properties and may regulate skin permeability. Here we examine whether the proportions of fatty acids among the infant and maternal plasma phospholipids at birth were associated with maternal dietary intake during pregnancy and development of atopic eczema during the first year of age in the Nutritional impact on Immunological maturation during Childhood in relation to the Environment (NICE) birth cohort. Dietary data were collected with a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire, fatty acids were measured with GC-MS and atopic eczema was diagnosed by a pediatric allergologist at 12 months of age. We found that higher proportions of n-6 PUFAs (including arachidonic acid) but lower proportions of n-3 PUFAs (including DPA) in the infant’s phospholipids at birth were associated with an increased risk of atopic eczema at 12 months of age. The n-6 and n-3 PUFAs were related to maternal intake of meat and fish, respectively. Our results suggest that prenatal exposure to unsaturated fatty acids is associated with eczema development in the infant. Maternal diet during pregnancy may partly explain the fatty acid profiles in utero.     

Does maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation affect outcomes in offspring? A systematic review of food-based approaches

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation and development of atopic disorders in childhood.MethodsWe included studies published up to August 2011 that assessed food-based maternal dietary interventions or that examined associations between maternal dietary intake during pregnancy and/or lactation and allergic outcomes (eczema, asthma, hay fever, and sensitization) in their children.ResultsWe included 42 studies (>40 000 children): 11 intervention studies (including 7 randomized control trials), 26 prospective cohort studies, 4 retrospective cohort studies, and 1 case–control study. In the randomized control trials, no significant difference was noted overall in the prevalence of eczema and asthma in the offspring of women on diets free from common food allergens during pregnancy. The prospective cohorts investigated a large number of potential associations, but reported few significant associations between maternal dietary intake and development of allergy. Maternal diets rich in fruits and vegetables, fish, and foods containing vitamin D and Mediterranean dietary patterns were among the few consistent associations with lower risk for allergic disease in their children. Foods associated with higher risk included vegetable oils and margarine, nuts, and fast food.ConclusionThis review did not find widespread or consistent links between mothers' dietary intake and atopic outcomes in their children. However, maternal consumption of Mediterranean dietary patterns, diets rich in fruits and vegetables, fish, and vitamin D-containing foods were suggestive of benefit, requiring further evaluation.     

Lipid metabolism during the perinatal phase, and its implications on postnatal development

During pregnancy, lipid metabolism plays a major role to warrant the availability of substrates to the foetus. By using different experimental designs in the rat we have been able to answer several questions that were open about the short- and long-term effects of alterations of lipid metabolism during the perinatal stage. The first one was to demonstrate the importance of maternal body fat depot accumulation during the first half of pregnancy. We found that conditions like undernutrition circumscribed to this specific period when foetal growth is still small, that impede such fat accumulation not only restrain intrauterine development but also have long-term consequences, as shown by an impaired glucose tolerance when adults. Secondly, undernutrition during suckling has major long-term effect decreasing body weight, even though food intake was kept normal from the weaning period. Present findings also show that a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation has negative effects on offspring development, but cross fostered experiments showed that the effect was a consequence of the intake of these fatty acids during the lactation period rather than during pregnancy. Pups from dams that were fed a fish oil-rich diet during pregnancy and lactation were found to have altered glucose/insulin relationship at the age of 10 weeks. Since a omega-3 fatty acid-rich diet decreases milk yield during lactation, additional experiments were carried out to determine whether decreased food intake, altered dietary fatty acid composition, or both were responsible for the long-term effects on the glucose/insulin axis. Results show that the decreased food intake caused by a omega-3 fatty acid-rich diet rather than the change in milk composition during suckling was responsible for the reduced pancreatic glucose responsiveness to insulin release at 16 weeks of age. In conclusion, present findings indicate that impaired maternal fat accumulation during early pregnancy and food intake during lactation, rather than a difference in dietary fatty acid composition have a greater influence on postnatal development and affect glucose/insulin relationships in adult rats.     

Maternal diet and selenium concentration in human milk from an Italian population

Background

Low selenium (Se) status is associated with several diseases. International organizations have proposed intakes of Se for general populations, including infants. Studies of the association of Se concentration in breast milk and maternal diet have yielded inconsistent results. We evaluated the relation between the intake of food items during pregnancy and Se concentration in human milk after delivery and compared infant intake of Se from breast milk with the recommended intakes.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was part of the baseline assessment of a prospective cohort of Italian mother–child pairs enrolled in 1999–2001. Se concentration was measured in the milk of 100 women included in the cohort and correlated with the intake of food items during pregnancy and lactation as reported in a food frequency questionnaire.

Results

Among foods consumed in pregnancy, only eggs had a positive, but weak, correlation with Se concentration in milk (r = 0.20, P = 0.04). Fish intake during lactation was also weakly correlated with Se in milk (r = 0.21, P = 0.04). Se content of breast milk in our population was lower than that noted in other international studies; however, very few children who were exclusively breastfed were estimated not to have met the recommended Se intake.

Conclusions

Future research should aim to verify whether infants in this part of Italy still meet the recommended nutrient intake of Se and to assess the influence of the concurrent diet of lactating mothers on the Se content of their milk.Key words: selenium, human milk, maternal diet     

Vitamin A during lactation: relationship of maternal diet to milk vitamin A content and to the vitamin A status of lactating rats and their pups

We have investigated the effects of maternal vitamin A intake during pregnancy and lactation or during lactation alone on the concentration of vitamin A in rat's milk and on vitamin A levels in plasma and liver of dams and their pups. Groups of Sprague-Dawley rats were fed diets having either a high vitamin A content [15 retinol equivalents (R.E.)/g diet] or a low vitamin A content (0.6 R.E./g) for 42 d, including 7-8 d prior to pregnancy, pregnancy, and for 14 d of lactation. The concentration of vitamin A in milk on d 14 of lactation was significantly greater on the high vitamin A diets [114 +/- 16 micrograms/dl (mean +/- SEM; n = 8) versus 52 +/- 7.3 micrograms/dl (n = 11), P less than 0.005]. However, milk vitamin A concentration on d 1 of lactation did not vary with maternal vitamin A intake during pregnancy. In a second study in which supplementation with vitamin A (30 R.E./g diet) was begun on d 1 postpartum, the milk vitamin A content increased progressively with duration of lactation. Maternal plasma vitamin A concentrations did not differ between rats fed the higher or lower vitamin A diets. However, liver vitamin A concentrations both of dams and of their 14-d-old pups were significantly higher when dams were fed the higher vitamin A diets during pregnancy and/or lactation. The results of these studies indicate that the transfer of vitamin A from mother to offspring by milk and the vitamin A status of dams and their suckling neonates is influenced by maternal vitamin A intake during lactation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

The quantitative effects of maternal dietary energy intake on pregnancy and lactation in rural Gambian women

The quantitative relationships between dietary energy intake and weight gain in pregnancy, birthweight and lactation performance during the first three months of infancy have been studied in such a way as to take account of major differences in the patterns of heavy manual labour at different times of the year in a subsistence farming community. Maternal weight gain and the accumulation of subcutaneous fat were significantly lower when the last trimester of pregnancy fell during the time of heaviest farm work and lowest energy intakes. The birth-weight of babies was also significantly correlated with differences in energy intake throughout the year. During early lactation breast milk yields were significantly related to concomitant alterations in the subcutaneous fat stores. Evidence has been produced which suggests that in undernourished nursing women there could be a competition for dietary energy between the repleting maternal subcutaneous fat organs and the mammary glands at the expense of milk production.     

Diet Beverage Intake during Lactation and Associations with Infant Outcomes in the Infant Feeding Practices Study II

Consumption of diet beverages (DB) containing low-calorie sweeteners (LCS) is widespread in the United States. LCS are ingested by nursing infants upon maternal DB consumption, which may impact infants’ weight and health. This study aims to examine cross-sectional associations between infants’ LCS exposure via maternal DB intake during lactation and infants’ health outcomes. Six hundred and eighty-two mother–infant dyads at three months postpartum, from the Infant Feeding Practices Study II, 2005–2007, were included in the analysis. Maternal DB consumption during lactation was estimated using the serving size and frequency of DB consumption reported on the diet history questionnaire. Infants’ LCS exposure was estimated by multiplying maternal DB consumption and breastfeeding intensity. Infant outcomes included weight, weight-for-age and BMI-for-age z-scores, overweight, and gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms including diarrhea, reflux, and vomiting. Associations between infants’ LCS exposure and continuous and categorical outcomes were examined using linear and logistic regressions adjusting for confounders, respectively. Forty-three percent of lactating women reported DB consumption. While no significant associations were observed between infants’ LCS exposure and BMI-for-age or risk of overweight, infants’ LCS exposure was associated with a 2.78-fold increased risk of vomiting (95% confidence interval 1.05–7.34). Potential adverse effects of LCS exposure on GI symptoms require further study, and null findings on infant weight should be interpreted with caution, given the small sample size. Additional research is needed to inform recommendations for or against DB consumption during lactation.     

The Foetal Origins of Allergy and Potential Nutritional Interventions to Prevent Disease

The first nine months from conception to birth involves greater changes than at any other time in life, affecting organogenesis, endocrine, metabolic and immune programming. It has led to the concept that the “first 1000 days” from conception to the second birthday are critical in establishing long term health or susceptibility to disease. Immune ontogeny is predominantly complete within that time and is influenced by the maternal genome, health, diet and environment pre-conception and during pregnancy and lactation. Components of the immunological protection of the pregnancy is the generation of Th-2 and T-regulatory cytokines with the consequence that neonatal adaptive responses are also biased towards Th-2 (allergy promoting) and T-regulatory (tolerance promoting) responses. Normally after birth Th-1 activity increases while Th-2 down-regulates and the evolving normal human microbiome likely plays a key role. This in turn will have been affected by maternal health, diet, exposure to antibiotics, mode of delivery, and breast or cow milk formula feeding. Complex gene/environment interactions affect outcomes. Many individual nutrients affect immune mechanisms and variations in levels have been associated with susceptibility to allergic disease. However, intervention trials employing single nutrient supplementation to prevent allergic disease have not achieved the expected outcomes suggested by observational studies. Investigation of overall dietary practices including fresh fruit and vegetables, fish, olive oil, lower meat intake and home cooked foods as seen in the Mediterranean and other healthy diets have been associated with reduced prevalence of allergic disease. This suggests that the “soup” of overall nutrition is more important than individual nutrients and requires further investigation both during pregnancy and after the infant has been weaned. Amongst all the potential factors affecting allergy outcomes, modification of maternal and infant nutrition and the microbiome are easier to employ than changing other aspects of the environment but require large controlled trials before recommending changes to current practice.     

Maternal diet during pregnancy in relation to eczema and allergic sensitization in the offspring at 2 y of age

BACKGROUND: Maternal diet during pregnancy might be one of the factors that influences fetal immune responses associated with childhood allergy. OBJECTIVE: We analyzed the association between maternal diet during the last 4 wk of pregnancy and allergic sensitization and eczema in the offspring at 2 y of age. DESIGN: Data from 2641 children at 2 y of age were analyzed within a German prospective birth cohort study (LISA). Maternal diet during the last 4 wk of pregnancy was assessed with a semiquantitative food-frequency questionnaire, which was administered shortly after childbirth. RESULTS: High maternal intake of margarine [adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 1. 49; 95% CI: 1.08, 2.04] and vegetable oils (aOR: 1.48; 95% CI: 1.14, 1.91) during the last 4 wk of pregnancy was positively associated and high maternal fish intake (aOR: 0.75; 95% CI: 0.57, 0.98) was inversely associated with eczema during the first 2 y in the offspring. High celery (aOR: 1.85; 95% CI: 1.18, 2.89) and citrus fruit (aOR: 1.73; 95% CI: 1.18, 2.53) intakes increased the risk of sensitization against food allergens. In turn, sensitization against inhalant allergens was positively related to a high maternal intake of deep-frying vegetable fat (aOR: 1.61; 95% CI: 1.02, 2.54), raw sweet pepper (aOR: 2.16; 95% CI: 1.20, 3.90), and citrus fruit (aOR: 1.72; 95% CI: 1.02, 2.92). CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that the intake of allergenic foods and foods rich in n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids during pregnancy may increase and foods rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may decrease the risk of allergic diseases in the offspring.     

Differential Effects of Maternal High Fat Diet During Pregnancy and Lactation on Taste Preferences in Rats

Maternal intake of high fat diet (HFD) increases risk for obesity and metabolic disorders in offspring. Developmental programming of taste preference is a potential mechanism by which this occurs. Whether maternal HFD during pregnancy, lactation, or both, imposes greater risks for altered taste preferences in adult offspring remains a question, and in turn, was investigated in the present study. Four groups of offspring were generated based on maternal HFD access: (1) HFD during pregnancy and lactation (HFD); (2) HFD during pregnancy (HFD-pregnancy); (3) HFD during lactation (HFD-lactation); and (4) normal diet (ND) during pregnancy and lactation (ND). Adult offspring 70 days of age underwent sensory and motivational taste preference testing with various concentrations of sucrose and Intralipid solutions using brief-access automated gustometers (Davis-rigs) and 24 h two-bottle choice tests, respectively. To control for post-gestational diet effects, offspring in all experimental groups were weaned on ND, and did not differ in body weight or glucose tolerance at the time of testing. Offspring exposed to maternal HFD showed increased sensory taste responses for 0.3, 0.6, 1.2 M sucrose solutions in HFD and 0.6 M in HFD-pregnancy groups, compared to animals exposed to ND. Similar effects were noted for lower concentrations of Intralipid in HFD (0.05, 0.10%) and HFD-pregnancy (0.05, 0.10, 0.5%) groups. The HFD-lactation group showed an opposite, diminished responsiveness for sucrose at the highest concentrations (0.9, 1.2, 1.5 M), but not for Intralipid, compared to ND animals. Extended-access two-bottle tests did not reveal major difference across the groups. Our study shows that maternal HFD during pregnancy and lactation has markedly different effects on preferences for palatable sweet and fatty solutions in adult offspring and suggests that such developmental programing may primarily affect gustatory mechanisms. Future studies are warranted for determining the impact of taste changes on development of obesity and metabolic disorders in a “real” food environment with food choices available, as well as to identify specific underlying mechanisms.     

Association of Maternal Dietary Patterns during Pregnancy and Offspring Weight Status across Infancy: Results from a Prospective Birth Cohort in China

Literature on maternal dietary patterns during pregnancy and offspring weight status have been largely equivocal. We aimed to investigate the association of maternal dietary patterns with infant weight status among 937 mother–infant dyads in a Chinese birth cohort. We assessed maternal diet during pregnancy using food frequency questionnaires (FFQ) and three-day food diaries (TFD) and examined infants’ body weight and length at birth, 1, 3, 6, 8 and 12 months. Maternal adherence to the “protein-rich pattern (FFQ)” was associated with lower infant body mass index z-scores (BMIZ) at birth, 3 and 6 months and lower odds of overweight and obesity (OwOb) across infancy (quartile 3 (Q3) vs. quartile 1 (Q1): odds ratio (OR): 0.50, (95% confidence interval: 0.27, 0.93)). Maternal adherence to the “vegetable–fruit–rice pattern (FFQ)” was associated with higher BMIZ at birth, 3 and 6 months and higher odds of OwOb across infancy (Q3 vs. Q1: OR: 1.79, (1.03, 3.12)). Maternal adherence to the “fried food–bean–dairy pattern (TFD)” was associated with lower BMIZ at 3, 6, 8 and 12 months and lower odds of OwOb (Q3 vs. Q1: OR: 0.54, (0.31, 0.95)). The study results may help to develop interventions and to better define target populations for childhood obesity prevention.     

Maternal dietary PUFAs intake and human milk content relationships during the first month of lactation

Maternal dietary fatty acids (FFAs) intake and corresponding human milk composition relationships have been assessed throughout the first month of lactation in 34 lactating women consecutively enrolled. All mothers were on their habitual diet. Food records (95 items) were administered to the mothers, six-times during the first month of lactation (1 day after delivery, 4, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days after colostrum appearance) and referred to maternal dietary intake of the day before. Milk collected on day 1 was considered as colostrum, day 4 and 7 samples as transitional milk, and day 14, 21 and 28 samples as mature milk. Five gas chromatographic analyses were performed on each sample. Statistics were made using Friedman's and Pearson's test. Maternal dietary saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) were significantly related to the corresponding milk pattern in the phase of transitional milk (P<0.01), while total polyunsaturated (PUFAs) content was significantly related only to the mature milk (P<0.01); in this phase about 42% of the variations occurring in PUFAs milk content can be related to variation of maternal PUFAs dietary intake. The results in the present study provide evidence of the relationships between maternal diet and milk composition. The degree of correlation between maternal diet and PUFAs milk content increases throughout milk maturational process and reaches significance only in mature milk. This would imply that advancing lactation, milk PUFAs provision sources gradually shift from adipose tissue catabolism to maternal diet.     

Maternal Vitamin D and Newborn Telomere Length

Nutrition is important during pregnancy for offspring health. Gestational vitamin D intake may prevent several adverse outcomes and might have an influence on offspring telomere length (TL). In this study, we want to assess the association between maternal vitamin D intake during pregnancy and newborn TL, as reflected by cord blood TL. We studied mother–child pairs enrolled in the Maternal Nutrition and Offspring’s Epigenome (MANOE) cohort, Leuven, Belgium. To calculate the dietary vitamin D intake, 108 women were asked to keep track of their diet using the seven-day estimated diet record (EDR) method. TL was assessed in 108 cord blood using a quantitative real-time PCR method. In each trimester of pregnancy, maternal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OHD) concentration was measured. We observed a positive association (β = 0.009, p-value = 0.036) between newborn average relative TL and maternal vitamin D intake (diet + supplement) during the first trimester. In contrast, we found no association between average relative TL of the newborn and mean maternal serum 25-OHD concentrations during pregnancy. To conclude, vitamin D intake (diet + supplements), specifically during the first trimester of pregnancy, is an important factor associated with TL at birth.     

Associations of Prenatal Mercury Exposure From Maternal Fish Consumption and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids With Child Neurodevelopment: A Prospective Cohort Study in Italy

Background

Mercury is a neurotoxin, and limited prenatal exposure to it can affect long-term child neurodevelopment. However, results of epidemiologic studies of such exposure have been inconsistent. We examined the association of prenatal mercury exposure from maternal fish consumption with child neurodevelopment in northern Italy.

Methods

A population-based cohort of 606 children and their mothers was studied from pregnancy to age 18 months. Mercury levels were measured in maternal hair and blood during pregnancy and in umbilical cord blood and breast milk. Levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) were measured in maternal serum. Maternal and child intakes of fish were assessed by using a food frequency questionnaire. The Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (BSID-III) was used to evaluate child neurodevelopment. Multivariate linear regression was used to examine the association of mercury exposure with BSID-III scores, after controlling for maternal fish intake, PUFAs during pregnancy, and several other confounders.

Results

Mean weekly fish intake during pregnancy was less than 2 servings. Mercury concentrations in biological samples were low (mean, 1061 ng/g in hair) and moderately correlated with fish intake, particularly of carnivorous species. Maternal ω-3 PUFA concentrations were poorly correlated with fish intake. Maternal intelligence quotient (IQ) and child intake of fish were significantly associated with neurodevelopment scores. In multivariate models, the level of Hg exposure was not associated with neurodevelopmental performance at 18 months.

Conclusions

In this Italian population, neurodevelopment at 18 months was associated with child intake of fresh fish and maternal IQ rather than with mercury exposure. The expected beneficial effect of maternal fish intake (from maternal ω-3 PUFAs) was not found.Key words: mercury, polyunsaturated fatty acids, nervous system development, fish, Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development     

Evidence that a maternal “junk food” diet during pregnancy and lactation can reduce muscle force in offspring

Background  Obesity is a multi-factorial condition generally attributed to an unbalanced diet and lack of exercise. Recent evidence suggests that maternal malnutrition during pregnancy and lactation can also contribute to the development of obesity in offspring. We have developed an animal model in rats to examine the effects of maternal overeating on a westernised “junk food” diet using palatable processed foods rich in fat, sugar and salt designed for human consumption. Using this model, we have shown that such a maternal diet can promote overeating and a greater preference for junk food in offspring at the end of adolescence. The maternal junk food diet also promoted adiposity and muscle atrophy at weaning. Impaired muscle development may permanently affect the function of this tissue including its ability to generate force. Aims  The aim of this study is to determine whether a maternal junk food diet can impair muscle force generation in offspring. Methods  Twitch and tetanic tensions were measured in offspring fed either chow alone (C) or with a junk food diet (J) during gestation, lactation and/or post-weaning up to the end of adolescence such that three groups of offspring were used, namely the CCC, JJC and JJJ groups. Results  We show that adult offspring from mothers fed the junk food diet in pregnancy and lactation display reduced muscle force (both specific twitch and tetanic tensions) regardless of the post-weaning diet compared with offspring from mothers fed a balanced diet. Conclusions  Maternal malnutrition can influence muscle force production in offspring which may affect an individual’s ability to exercise and thereby combat obesity.     

Associations of Maternal Consumption of Dairy Products during Pregnancy with Perinatal Fatty Acids Profile in the EDEN Cohort Study

Maternal diet is the main source of fatty acids for developing offspring in-utero and in breastfed infants. Dairy products (DP) are important sources of fat in the European population diet. C15:0 and C17:0 fatty acids have been suggested as biomarkers of dairy fat consumption. This study’s aim is to describe the associations between maternal DP (milk included) consumption during pregnancy and C15:0, C17:0 and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) levels in perinatal biofluids. Study populations were composed of 1763, 1337 and 879 French mothers from the EDEN (“Étude des Déterminants pre- et post-natals de la santé de l’ENfant”) study, with data on maternal and cord red blood cells’ (RBC) membrane and colostrum, respectively. Associations were assessed using linear regression models adjusted for recruitment center, maternal age, healthy dietary pattern or fish consumption. Greater adherence to a ”cheese” consumption pattern was associated with lower linoleic acid level in colostrum and higher C15:0 and C17:0 levels but in a less consistent manner for C17:0 across biofluids. Greater adherence to “semi-skimmed milk, yogurt” and “reduced-fat DP” patterns was related to higher docosahexaenoic acid and total n-3 PUFA levels and lower n-6/n-3 long-chain PUFA ratio in maternal and cord RBC. Our results suggest that C15:0 could be a good biomarker of maternal dairy fat consumption in perinatal biofluids.     

A maternal 'junk food' diet in pregnancy and lactation promotes an exacerbated taste for 'junk food' and a greater propensity for obesity in rat offspring

Obesity is generally associated with high intake of junk foods rich in energy, fat, sugar and salt combined with a dysfunctional control of appetite and lack of exercise. There is some evidence to suggest that appetite and body mass can be influenced by maternal food intake during the fetal and suckling life of an individual. However, the influence of a maternal junk food diet during pregnancy and lactation on the feeding behaviour and weight gain of the offspring remains largely uncharacterised. In this study, six groups of rats were fed either rodent chow alone or with a junk food diet during gestation, lactation and/or post-weaning. The daily food intakes and body mass were measured in forty-two pregnant and lactating mothers as well as in 216 offspring from weaning up to 10 weeks of age. Results showed that 10 week-old rats born to mothers fed the junk food diet during gestation and lactation developed an exacerbated preference for fatty, sugary and salty foods at the expense of protein-rich foods when compared with offspring fed a balanced chow diet prior to weaning or during lactation alone. Male and female offspring exposed to the junk food diet throughout the study also exhibited increased body weight and BMI compared with all other offspring. This study shows that a maternal junk food diet during pregnancy and lactation may be an important contributing factor in the development of obesity.     

Endocrine-Disrupting Organochlorine Pesticides in Human Breast Milk: Changes during Lactation

The aim of the present study was to assess infant safety associated with the occurrence of endocrine-disrupting organochlorine pesticides (OCP) in breast milk. Moreover, the association between pregnant mothers’ dietary habits and these compounds levels in breast milk was investigated. Breast milk was collected at various stages of lactation. The samples were analyzed by the GC-MS method. The OCP concentrations ranged from < limit of detection (LOD) to 6.81 ng/g lipids. The highest OCP concentrations in breast milk occurred primarily within the first month of lactation, and decreased over the lactation period. It was found that the maternal consumption of certain food products—in particular pork, beef, poultry, eggs, and dairy products—could have affected the content of 1,1’-(2,2,2-Trichloroethane-1,1-diyl)bis(4-chlorobenzene), called DDT and its metabolites in the breast milk. The levels of beta-endosulfan were positively correlated with fish and poultry consumption. The redundancy analysis indicated that the diets of the pregnant women had an important impact on pesticide residues in the breast milk. There is a potential possibility of lowering the content of organochlorine compounds in breast milk by adhering to nutritional recommendations, e.g., avoiding the excessive consumption of fish and other raw food materials of unknown origin.     

Case study of temporal changes in maternal dietary intake and the association with breast milk mineral contents

Minerals play important roles in infant growth and development, even though they only make up to 0.2 g% of the mature breast milk contents. Limited studies examined the association between maternal dietary intake and breast milk mineral contents in a temporal manner. Twenty Malaysian Malay postpartum mothers were recruited by either convenience or snow balling sampling from the urban lower middle income residential areas. Dietary intake of the subjects was obtained by 24-hour recall during each breast milk collection. Adequacy of maternal mineral intake was compared with the latest Recommended Nutrient Intake for Malaysia. Each of the subject provided breast milk samples for three times (T1, T2, and T3) at consecutive 2-week intervals. Breast milk concentrations of selected macro- and micro-minerals, including Ca, P, K, Na, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Se, I, Cr and Mo were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Subjects were aged 31.4 ± 6.1 years with a majority (60 %) having post-secondary school/ college education. While maternal intake of macro-minerals, Ca, P, K and Mg, did not display a significant temporal changes from T1 to T3, the intake of micro- minerals, Cu, Mn and I decreased significantly over time from T1 to T3. Breast milk K, Fe, Zn and Cu concentrations showed a significant decreased with the progression of lactation from transitional (2–3 weeks) to established stage (>8-12 weeks). Significant correlations were established between maternal intake of K, Na, Fe and Se and their respective concentrations in breast milk in the present study. This case study revealed an inadequate maternal intake of several key micro- minerals (Cu, Mn, I) among the postpartum Malay mothers and a decreasing concentrations of certain essential minerals (K, Fe, Zn and Cu) in breast milk with lactation stage.