Upper airway sequelae in burn patients requiring endotracheal intubation or tracheostomy.

During a period of 11 1/2 months, 41 of 217 adult burn patients admitted to the U.S. Army Institute of Surgical Research Burn Center required endotracheal intubation or tracheostomy for management of the airway and/or ventilatory assistance. Permanent upper airway sequelae were recorded and related to presence of inhalation injury, duration of tube placement, cuff pressure, and pulmonary compliance. An "inhalation injury scoring system" based upon history, physical examination, bronchoscopic findings, and abnormalities at 133xenon lung scan correlated well with postinjury alteration in compliance and subsequent sequelae. Significant inhalation injury was found in 35 patients. Seventeen of the study patients survived (Group I) and 24 patients expired (Group II). Group I patients were screened for permanent airway sequelae by fiberoptic bronchoscopy, xeroradiograms, and spirometry undertaken an average of 11 weeks after extubation or decannulation. Four patients developed tracheal stenosis and five patients had significant tracheal scar granuloma formation. Sequelae were generally more frequent and more severe after tracheostomy than after translaryngeal intubation, and duration of tube placement and presence of a tracheal stoma were the most important etiological factors in permanent damage. For initial respiratory support, we favor the use of translaryngeal (nasotracheal) tubes for periods up to 3 weeks. Fiberoptic bronchoscopic examination is the most reliable follow-up method for detecting anatomic damage in such patients. Spirometry can be used as a noninvasive screening test and xeroradiograms are helpful in assessing the degree of tracheal stenosis.     

Bronchoscopic removal of bronchial foreign bodies through the laryngeal mask airway in pediatric patients

The laryngeal mask airway was used to perform fiberoptic removal of bronchial foreign bodies (peanuts) in two pediatric patients. Laryngeal mask airway offers easy access to the airway, safe respiratory management and direct visualization of the airway during bronchoscopic procedures. Laryngeal mask airway allows the use of larger bronchoscopes than can usually be used for children when bronchoscopy is performed through an endotracheal tube. In each case, the peanuts were removed safely and easily using a Fogarty catheter through the fiberoptic bronchoscope. These cases suggest that laryngeal mask airway is useful in maintaining a secure airway during the removal of bronchial foreign bodies in children.     

Bronchoscopic removal of bronchial foreign bodies through the laryngeal mask airway in pediatric patients.

The laryngeal mask airway was used to perform fiberoptic removal of bronchial foreign bodies (peanuts) in two pediatric patients. Laryngeal mask airway offers easy access to the airway, safe respiratory management and direct visualization of the airway during bronchoscopic procedures. Laryngeal mask airway allows the use of larger bronchoscopes than can usually be used for children when bronchoscopy is performed through an endotracheal tube. In each case, the peanuts were removed safely and easily using a Fogarty catheter through the fiberoptic bronchoscope. These cases suggest that laryngeal mask airway is useful in maintaining a secure airway during the removal of bronchial foreign bodies in children.     

Isolated smoke inhalation injuries: acute respiratory dysfunction, clinical outcomes, and short-term evolution of pulmonary functions with the effects of steroids

Relatively few reports exist regarding isolated smoke inhalation injuries in human patients. In this study, we describe the acute manifestations and short-term evolution of respiratory injuries after isolated smoke inhalation in victims of fires. Ninety-six patients admitted as the result of a subway fire were examined for acute respiratory dysfunction with clinical outcomes. Some of the survivors suffering from less severe injuries were evaluated for changes in pulmonary function over time, with the effects of steroid treatment. In 13 patients (14%), immediate respiratory failure resulted from ventilatory insufficiency, which was induced principally by mechanical airway obstruction, and manifested as significantly lowered pH and higher PaCO2 levels than in the patients requiring no mechanical ventilation. Toilet bronchoscopy allowed for early liberation from mechanical ventilation. Along with the death of 4 patients (4%), vocal cord and tracheal stenosis were noted in 5 patients and 1 patient, respectively, among 17 patients for whom endotracheal intubation was required. Pulmonary functions improved significantly after 3 months, with no further changes being observed within the subsequent 3 months. Steroid therapy resulted in no additional improvements in the pulmonary functions of these patients. In patients with isolated smoke inhalation injuries, immediate ventilatory insufficiency resulting from mechanical airway obstruction should be watched for, and managed via toilet bronchoscopy. Vigilance is required to avoid airway complications after endotracheal intubation. The improvement of pulmonary functions progressed primarily within the first 3 months, whereas short-course steroid therapy exerted no influence on the eventual recovery of pulmonary functions in the less severe cases.     

瓦斯爆炸致吸入性损伤106例分析

目的　总结瓦斯爆炸致吸入性损伤的治疗经验。　方法　分析 10 6例瓦斯爆炸致吸入性损伤病例 ,并就伤情特点及治疗重点进行探讨。　结果　 10 6例中爆炸复合伤 98例 (92 .4% ) ,出现呼吸功能不全 86例 (81% ) ,引起肺部感染 73例 (6 8.8% )。本组治愈 77例 ,治愈率 72 .7% ,死亡2 9例 ,占 2 7.3%。　结论　及时解除瓦斯爆炸致吸入性损伤的呼吸道梗阻 ,应用纤维支气管镜、呼吸机 ,清除气道内吸入物 ,维持有效气体交换 ,正确、及时肺复苏治疗 ,连续血气监测纠正低氧血症 ,可提高救治成功率     

烧伤合并中重度吸入性损伤的早期救治

目的：为提高中重度吸入性损伤治疗水平,探讨中重度吸入性损伤早期救治的方法。方法：对32例烧伤合并中重度吸入性损伤患者实施“四早”救治方案,即：早期气管切开;早期充分给氧;早期气道湿化、灌洗;早期纤维支气管镜检查及治疗。32例患者中,烧伤面积〈30％TBSA16例,30％～50％TBSA10例,〉50％TB—SA6例;Ⅲ度烧伤面积〈10％TBSA17例,10％～20％TBSA6例,〉20％TBSA9例。救治过程中观察患者气道黏膜损伤情况及愈合时间,监测气道灌洗前后、纤支镜治疗前后30min患者的心率、呼吸频率及动脉血气变化,纤支镜治疗前后痰标本作细菌培养。结果：32例中治愈28例,死亡4例,2例死于急性呼吸窘迫综合征,2例死于肺部严重感染,病死率12．5％;气道的愈合与黏膜损伤程度密切相关,与损伤部位关系不明显;气道灌洗前后和纤支镜治疗前后,患者的动脉血氧饱和度、动脉血氧分压升高,心率、呼吸频率减慢,动脉血pH值降低;纤支镜肺泡灌洗后气道内病原菌明显减少。中重度吸入性损伤患者应用“四早”救治方案后,显著地提高了救治的成功率。结论：对中重度吸入性损伤患者按“四早”方案进行救治是有效可行的。     

Diagnosis of the laryngeal or tracheobronchial lesions by fiberoptic bronchoscopy for anesthesiologists

Flexible fiberoptic endoscopic equipment is a useful visualization aid for diagnosis of laryngeal or tracheobronchial lesions and for intubation in patients with difficult airway. It also determines double-lumen tube position. In an intensive care unit, fiberoptic bronchoscopy is the cornerstone of the causal diagnosis in acute respiratory failure and laryngo-tracheobronchial trauma. However, for many anesthesiologists, its use tends to be limited to fiberoptic intubation and anesthetic management of thoracic surgery. Therefore, this review focuses on diagnostic strategies of laryngeal or tracheobronchial lesions by fiberoptic bronchoscopy for anesthesiologists. It also refers to the equipment and the strategy in performing fiberoptic bronchoscopy for anesthesiologist. We anesthesiologists need to attain proficiency in diagnostic skill in fiberoptic bronchoscopy as specialists of airway managent in acute settings as well as the operating room.     

Dexmedetomidine and awake fiberoptic intubation for possible cervical spine myelopathy: a clinical series

For many anesthesiologists, awake fiberoptic endotracheal intubation (AFOBI) is the preferred method of intubation when treating patients with symptoms or signs of cervical spinal cord compression. The advantage of this method is to minimize cervical spine movements that could contribute to neurologic impairment. In patients who are anxious or poorly cooperative, adequate sedation in addition to topicalization of the airway may be key to minimize patient discomfort and assist in successful intubation, but imposes the risk of respiratory depression. Dexmedetomidine has the advantage of producing sedation without a significant decrease in respiratory drive. We are now reporting our experience of a series of AFOBI using dexmedetomidine for sedation. A retrospective chart review was conducted on the anesthetic records of patients, who had undergone an awake fiberoptic endotracheal intubation (AFOBI) using dexmedetomidine for sedation. These were patients in whom AFOBI was indicated because of signs or symptoms of cervical spinal cord compression. Dexmedetomidine provided adequate sedation. We did not encounter any loss of airway or airway obstruction during the intubation. The patients had excellent cooperation for post-intubation neurologic examination. Thirteen patients developed transient hypotension after induction of general anesthesia that was managed with boluses of phenylephrine or ephedrine.     

Laryngeal nerve monitoring during thyroid surgery in pregnancy

A 32-week parturient required partial thyroidectomy for suspicious carcinoma. The surgeon requested laryngeal nerve monitoring to decrease the chances of laryngeal nerve injury during surgery. After rapid-sequence induction of general anesthesia and intubation, a size 3 laryngeal mask airway was inserted posterior to the endotracheal tube and the cuff inflated with 15 mL of air. A fiberoptic bronchoscope inserted through the laryngeal mask airway provided an unhindered view of vocal cords for laryngeal nerve identification and testing during surgery. This combined technique also offered the advantages of a secured airway, as well as positive pressure ventilation in the parturient during thyroid surgery.     

Respiratory care of the burn patient

The vast majority of respiratory disorders in thermally injured patients arise from associated inhalation injuries. The major forms of these injuries are carbon monoxide poisoning, injury to the upper airway, and pulmonary parenchymal damage. One hundred per cent oxygen, initiated at the scene of the accident, is the single most effective treatment of carbon monoxide toxicity, which must be assessed by carboxyhemoglobin determinations. Respiratory tract damage is identified by fiberoptic bronchoscopy and xenon ventilation-perfusion scintigrams. The compromised airway is protected by tracheal intubation, and respiratory failure is treated with assisted ventilation and supplemental oxygen. Pulmonary infection requires specific antibiotics based on isolated organisms and their sensitivities to antimicrobials. The upper respiratory tract of patients requiring long-term intubation should be assessed by fiberoptic bronchoscopy and other modalities to prevent fatal late airway occlusion.     

Smoke inhalation injury: diagnosis and respiratory management

Smoke inhalation is a significant comorbid factor following major thermal injury. Smoke exposure is only a trigger for the sequence of events responsible for the development of inhalation injury. Noxious chemicals generated by incomplete combustion injure the exposed bronchoepithelium and stimulate the release of chemical mediators that cause a progressive inflammatory process. Airway inflammation and pulmonary edema impair gas exchange and increase the susceptibility to pulmonary infection. Earlier diagnosis and treatment of inhalation injury is an important element to improve the clinical course of severe burn patients. The American Burn Association, however, recently concluded that there are insufficient data to support a treatment standard for the diagnosis of inhalation injury. At present, the diagnosis of inhalation injury is supported by the combination of history, physical examination, bronchoscopy, and laboratory findings For accurate diagnosis of inhalation injury, helical CT scanning and examination to detect activated leukocytes in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid may be warranted. In the respiratory management of inhalation injury, repeated removal of pseudomembrane by fiberoptic bronchoscopy and the use of adequate PEEP to avoid airway obstruction are essential. High-frequency percussive ventilation can be a suitable mode of ventilation for inhalation injury.     

GlideScope-assisted fiberoptic bronchoscope intubation in a patient with severe rheumatoid arthritis

Here, we report that, under the assistance of both the GlideScope and a fiberoptic bronchoscope, tracheal intubation was accomplished successfully in a 50-year-old woman with severe rheumatoid arthritis who underwent tongue lump resection under general anesthesia. Either the GlideScope or the fiberoptic bronchoscope alone failed to secure the airway; the use of both in combination facilitated airway intubation. This case report indicate that, even with careful preoperative assessment, patients who suffer from rheumatoid arthritis may have severe airway difficulty with intubation, and the combined use of the GlideScope and a fiberoptic bronchoscope can be a novel alternative for tracheal intubation in patients with severe airway difficulty.     

Endoscopic relief of malignant airway obstruction

The ability to manage acute airway obstruction can be life-saving. Airway relief should be expeditious and immediate, with low morbidity and mortality. It should not interfere with future definitive therapy. In patients with terminal malignancy, it should be economical in cost and should minimize hospitalization. We used biopsy forceps and the rigid bronchoscope to "core out" 56 patients with obstructing airway neoplasms. The location of the obstruction was trachea in 16 patients, carina in 24, main bronchi in 8, and distal airway in 8. Improvement in the airway was accomplished in 90% of patients. A single bronchoscopy was sufficient in 96%. Nineteen complications occurred in 11 patients: pneumonia in 5, bleeding in 3, pneumothorax in 2, hypoxia/hypercarbia in 2, arrhythmias in 6, and laryngeal edema in 1. There were four deaths within 2 weeks of core-out related to respiratory failure. Further therapy consisted of resection in 28.6% (tracheal in 9, carinal in 3, pulmonary in 4), irradiation alone or in combination with chemotherapy in 60.7%, and no therapy in 10.7%. Palliation of symptoms and establishment of an airway in acute obstruction is the goal. Survival depends on the effectiveness of the proposed treatment. We find this time-honored method superior to use of the laser.     

Wire-guided catheter exchange after failed direct laryngoscopy in critically ill adults

Study ObjectiveTo describe a technique for tracheal intubation after failed direct laryngoscopy using a Laryngeal Mask Airway (LMA) to secure the airway and to establish ventilation, and as a conduit for fiberoptic intubation utilizing a pre-packaged, convenient, and commercially available wire-guided catheter exchange kit.DesignRetrospective case series.SettingUniversity hospital.MeasurementsThe cases of 5 critically ill adult patients who required intubation for respiratory failure, and in whom direct laryngoscopy was unsuccessful and unanticipated, were reviewed. Difficult intubation was defined as ≥ two attempts by direct laryngoscopy and use of an airway adjunct/alternate airway device, or ≥ three attempts by direct laryngoscopy. Occurrence of hypotension, hypoxemia, and the time required to accomplish the intubation were recorded.Main ResultsPatients' tracheas were intubated in the emergency department (n = 2), the intensive care unit (n = 2), and the radiology department (n = 1). An Eschmann endotracheal tube (ETT) introducer was used in 4 of the 5 patients, and a GlideScope was used in the fifth patient. After failed direct laryngoscopy, an LMA Classic was inserted to gain an airway, after which a fiberoptic bronchoscope and wire-guided catheter exchange set was used to change the LMA to a conventional ETT. Ventilation was maintained via the LMA with an attached bronchoscope adapter throughout the procedure.ConclusionsIn all 5 patients, the trachea was successfully intubated within three minutes on the first attempt, using a wire-guided exchange, without hypoxemia or hypotension.     

改良普通喉罩辅助纤维支气管镜气管插管在困难气道患者中的应用

目的观察改良普通喉罩辅助纤维支气管镜(fiberoptic bronchoscope,FOB)气管插管在困难气道患者中的应用效果。方法选择经熟练麻醉医师使用直接喉镜插管2次失败的择期全麻手术患者40例,男21例,女19例,年龄30~55岁,ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级,随机分为两组,每组20例。研究组(LMA-FOB组)将普通喉罩进行改良(剪开喉罩出口栅栏分隔处,剪短通气管),辅助FOB气管插管;对照组(FOB组)经口垫直接使用FOB气管插管。观察咽部解剖结构显露分级,记录一次插管成功率及插管时间,记录拔除喉罩带血和术后咽喉部疼痛、声音嘶哑等不良反应的发生情况。结果与FOB组比较,LMA-FOB组咽部解剖结构显露分级明显提高(Ⅰ/Ⅱ/Ⅲ/Ⅳ级:15/4/1/0vs.8/4/5/3,P0.05),一次插管成功率明显提高(90%vs.60%,P0.05),插管时间明显缩短[(75±20)s vs.(105±25)s,P0.05)]。术后LMA-FOB组仅1例喉罩带血,1例咽部轻微疼痛。结论对可能存在困难气道的患者,采用改良普通喉罩辅助纤维支气管镜引导气管插管可明显提高咽部解剖结构显露分级,提高一次插管成功率,缩短插管时间,术后无明显不良反应,是一种比较安全有效的方法,有一定的临床应用价值。     

Tracheal stenosis. A method of dilation with use of the fiberoptic bronchoscope.

Tracheal stenosis is not an uncommon sequel of prolonged endotracheal intubation. In some cases, immediate reconstruction is not feasible. We use the flexible fiberoptic bronchoscope and a lucent, tapered endotracheal tube for tracheal dilation. The fiberoptic bronchoscope is passed through a special T connector into the endotracheal tube and used to guide the tube under direct vision through the stricture.     

Tracheostomies in burn patients.

The use of tracheostomies in burned patients with inhalation injuries is now reserved for specific indications rather than as prophylactic airway management. A 5-year burn center experience with tracheostomies used in this fashion is presented. Ninety-nine tracheostomies were performed in 3246 patients who had indications of prolonged respiratory failure or acute loss of airway. Although colonization of the sputum was universal, neither rates of pulmonary sepsis nor mortality were significantly increased in patients who underwent tracheostomies. Twenty-eight patients developed late upper airway sequelae, including tracheal stenosis (TS), tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF), and tracheoarterial fistula (TAF). Duration of intubation correlated only with development of TAF, whereas patients in whom TEF developed were significantly older and more likely to have evidence of tracheal necrosis at the time of tracheostomy. The pathogenesis of upper airway sequelae in these patients as divergent responses to the combined insults of inhalation injury, infection, and intubation is considered.     

Jet Ventilation for Fiberoptic Bronchoscopy under General Anesthesia

An oxygen jet method of ventilating patients during laryngoscopy has been applied to fiberoptic bronchoscopy. A 3.5 mm plastic tube 24.5 cm long was inserted into the trachea through the mouth. An intermittent jet of oxygen at 3.5 atm (50psi) was applied to this tube using a 1.5 mm ID plastic catheter to ventilate the patient. Anesthesia was accomplished with intravenous thiamylal and Innovar®. The patients were paralyzed with continuous succinylcholine. The technique has subsequently been used without complications in more than 1,000 patients.
A fluidic ventilator was developed for delivering and controlling the oxygen jet. The airway pressure can be monitored continuously and, by the use of fluidic devices, the jet can be set to cut off automatically if the airway pressure is too high.
The above technique for laryngoscopy with the fluidic ventilator was used in 28 patients undergoing fiberoptic bronchoscopy (Olympus 5.7 mm diameter). The airway pressure was continuously monitored with a line attached to the suction port of the bronchoscope. Arterial Pco, ranged from 23 to 42 mmHg and Po₂ from 105 to 325 mmHg. The high Po, levels were maintained even during suctioning.
General anesthesia for fiberoptic bronchoscopy can be performed using an endotracheal tube not smaller than 8 mm internal diameter (ID). The advantages of the oxygen jet technique are that it can be used in smaller patients and that the upper airway can be examined.     

纤维支气管镜诊断和治疗吸入性损伤

目的通过纤维支气管镜对吸入性损伤进行系统形态学观察,探讨纤维支气管镜下诊断吸入性损伤的形态学标准,早期诊断的可行性,以及纤维支气管镜在吸入性损伤的局部治疗作用。方法经过１０年来１４４例临床应用纤维支气管镜诊治吸入性损伤体会,观察不同损伤程度的形态表现。结果得出镜下诊断和分类,早期（伤后８ｈ内）经纤维支气管镜诊断吸入性损伤的可行性及意义,借助纤维支气管镜对吸入性损伤局部进行吸引、刷洗、灌注等治疗的临床效果。结论纤维支气管镜在诊断治疗吸入性损伤中有其特殊地位和普及应用的必要性。     

The use of AIR-Q as conduit for fiberoptic endotracheal intubation in adult paralyzed patients

BackgroundThe AIR-Q Laryngeal Mask (Cookgas LLC; distributed by Mercury Medical) is a supraglottic device present in the market since 2004. It has different sizes for pediatric and adult use. This device proved to be of utmost importance in the management of difficult airway [1]. The study evaluates the different adult sizes of the Air Q when used for intubation regarding the ease of insertion, the laryngeal view grade, their efficacy as conduit for standard cuffed endotracheal tubes using fiberoptic bronchoscope. The study also records the time of intubation, the ease and time of removal of the AIRQ over a removal stylet without dislodgement of the tube from trachea. Any complications related to the use of AIRQ were also recorded such as laryngeal oedema, blood streaked mucous, trauma to the airway, laryngeal spasm or aspiration.MethodsSixty adult patients aged 20–50 years, ASA I, II undergoing elective surgeries requiring general anesthesia, were enrolled in the study. The patients were divided into 2 equal groups according to their body weight. The body weight of the first group ranged from 50 to 70 kg and used the Air Q 3.5 for intubation with an endotracheal tube (ETT) 7 mm ID, while the body weight of the second group ranges from 70 to 100 kg and used the Air Q 4.5 for intubation with a tube 7.5 mm ID. The number of attempts of insertion, the seal pressure, the laryngeal view grade, the time and the number of attempts of intubation, time of removal of the AIRQ over the tube without dislodgement, and any complications related to the use of AIRQ were recorded such as laryngeal oedema, blood streaked mucous, trauma to the airway, laryngeal spasm or aspiration.ResultsThe insertion and removal of the AIRQ were easy and successful in all patients of both groups. The endotracheal intubation by fiberoptic bronchoscope through the Air Q was successful and easy in both groups. Grade 5 laryngeal view was seen with AIRQ 4.5 in some patients with higher body weight.ConclusionThe insertion of AIRQ in adult patients is easy and provides an effective conduit for the standard cuffed endotracheal tubes using fiberoptic bronchoscope. The removal of the AIRQ over the removal stylet is easy without dislodgement of the tube. Because of higher incidence of down folding of the epiglottis in some obese patients, they are better intubated under direct vision with the use of fiberoptic bronchoscope.