No dose-dependence of DNA double-strand break misrejoining following alpha-particle irradiation

PURPOSE: To investigate whether an explanation for the high effectiveness of densely ionizing radiation with regard to complex biological endpoints can be derived from measurements of radiation-induced double-strand break (DSB) misrejoining. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Misrejoining of radiation-induced DSB in normal human fibroblasts was determined by comparing hybridization analysis of large restriction fragments as a measure for correct rejoining, with results from a conventional pulsed-field gel electrophoresis technique (FAR) that measures total DSB rejoining. In order to investigate DSB misrejoining at doses for which chromosome aberration data are available, a dose fractionation protocol was applied so that the number of DSB at any given timepoint was low but the cumulative amount of misrejoined DSB sufficient for detection and precise quantitation. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: After an acute 80Gy alpha-particle exposure and a repair incubation period of 24 h, 50% of all initially induced DSB were misrejoined, in agreement with data obtained for X-rays. X-irrradiation with 16 x 5 Gy, 8 x 10 Gy, 4 x 20 Gy, or 2 x 40 Gy and repair incubation of 24 h following each individual dose fraction was recently reported to yield misrejoining frequencies that strongly decrease with increasing fractionation (L?brich et al. 2000; Genes, Chromosomes and Cancer, 27, 59-68). In the present study, constant misrejoining frequencies of 50% were observed after alpha-particle exposure with the same fractionation protocol. This difference between alpha-particles and X-rays is in accordance with the high biological effectiveness of densely ionizing radiation and provides a direct link between misrejoining of DSB and cytologically visible exchange aberrations. Further evidence suggests that if the same dose range is compared, the number of misrejoined DSB exceeds the number of microscopically visible aberrations by an order of magnitude for both radiation types, probably reflecting the high resolution of the hybridization approach compared with cytological techniques.     

No dose-dependence of DNA double-strand break misrejoining following α-particle irradiation

Purpose : To investigate whether an explanation for the high effectiveness of densely ionizing radiation with regard to complex biological endpoints can be derived from measurements of radiation-induced double-strand break (DSB) misrejoining. Materials and methods : Misrejoining of radiation-induced DSB in normal human fibroblasts was determined by comparing hybridization analysis of large restriction fragments as a measure for correct rejoining, with results from a conventional pulsed-field gel electrophoresis technique (FAR) that measures total DSB rejoining. In order to investigate DSB misrejoining at doses for which chromosome aberration data are available, a dose fractionation protocol was applied so that the number of DSB at any given timepoint was low but the cumulative amount of misrejoined DSB sufficient for detection and precise quantitation. Results and conclusion : After an acute 80 Gy α -particle exposure and a repair incubation period of 24 h, 50% of all initially induced DSB were misrejoined, in agreement with data obtained for X-rays. X-irrradiation with 16 x 5 Gy, 8 x 10 Gy, 4 x 20 Gy, or 2 x 40 Gy and repair incubation of 24 h following each individual dose fraction was recently reported to yield misrejoining frequencies that strongly decrease with increasing fractionation (Löbrich et al. 2000; Genes, Chromosomes and Cancer, 27, 59-68). In the present study, constant misrejoining frequencies of 50% were observed after α -particle exposure with the same fractionation protocol. This difference between α -particles and X-rays is in accordance with the high biological effectiveness of densely ionizing radiation and provides a direct link between misrejoining of DSB and cytologically visible exchange aberrations. Further evidence suggests that if the same dose range is compared, the number of misrejoined DSB exceeds the number of microscopically visible aberrations by an order of magnitude for both radiation types, probably reflecting the high resolution of the hybridization approach compared with cytological techniques.     

DNA双链断裂修复途径中重要的修复蛋白

DNA双链断裂修复是DNA损伤最主要的修复途径之一,修复基因可以修复DNA损伤,保持遗传信息的完整性,从而抑制肿瘤的发生。目前已知参与DNA双链断裂损伤修复的机制有两种——非同源性末端连接和同源重组修复机制。该文介绍了参与非同源末端连接和同源重组修复机制的几种重要的修复蛋白。     

DNA double-strand break repair determines the RBE of alpha-particles

Radiation-induced DNA double-strand breaks (dsb) were studied in Ehrlich ascites tumour cells (EATC) by sedimentation in neutral sucrose gradients at low centrifuge speed. Dsb induction was found to be linear with dose with a frequency of: ndsbmr-1D-1 = (11.7 +/- 2) x 10(-12)Gy-1 for 140 kV X-rays and ndsbmr-1D-1 = (19.1 +/- 4) x 10(-12)Gy-1 for 3.4 MeV 241Am-alpha-particles. Postirradiation incubation of cells under non-growth conditions leads to repair of dsb, reaching a maximum after trep = 24 h. More than 97 per cent of dsb were repaired after an X-ray dose of 25 Gy. The number of residual dsb was found to be a linear-quadratic function of dose: nresmr-1 = (0.0161 +/- 0.0008) x 10(-12)Gy-2D2 for X-rays and nresmr-1 = (1.2 +/- 0.7) x 10(-12)Gy-1D + (0.105 +/- 0.017) x 10(-12)Gy-2D2 for alpha-particles. Thus, after cellular repair the RBE value of alpha-particles was increased from RBE = 1.6 +/- 0.4 (induction of dsb) to a dose-dependent value of RBE = 2.7 +/- 0.4 (at 100 Gy alpha-particles) to 3.8 +/- 1.2 (at 10 Gy alpha-particles) for residual dsb. From the data presented it is concluded that residual dsb are a major cause for loss of the reproductive capacity of EATC after irradiation with X-rays as well as alpha-particles.     

Tip60基因沉默对细胞DNA双链断裂修复和辐射敏感性的影响

目的 探讨Tip60对细胞辐射敏感性的影响及相关机制。方法 采用siRNA和Tip60乙酰转移酶抑制剂漆树酸,抑制U2OS细胞中Tip60的表达或乙酰转移酶活性;用克隆形成率分析细胞对⁶⁰Co γ射线的敏感性;采用γ-H2AX原位免疫荧光集簇点法,检测DNA双链断裂损伤修复;用免疫共沉淀检测蛋白质的相互作用。结果 siRNA沉默Tip60表达明显提高了U2OS细胞对1、2 Gy中、低剂量γ射线的敏感性(t=3.364、3.979,P＜0.05),但对4 Gy大剂量照射的细胞存活率无明显影响。γ-H2AX集簇点检测结果表明,照射后1、4和8 h,Tip60失活导致细胞DNA双链断裂修复能力降低(t=3.875、3.183和3.175, P<0.05)。细胞在受到电离辐射损伤后,Tip60与DNA修复蛋白DNA-PKcs发生相互作用,漆树酸能抑制DNA-PKcs的T2609位点的磷酸化。结论 Tip60通过与DNA-PKcs相互作用,调控细胞DNA双链断裂修复机制,对细胞辐射敏感性产生影响。     

Prediction of cell survival curves from DNA double-strand break repair data for low- and high-LET radiation

A model developed previously (Ostashevsky 1989), was applied to calculate survival curves from the DNA double-strand break (dsb) repair data for Ehrlich ascites tumour (EAT) cells irradiated with X-rays or 3.4 MeV alpha-particles (Bl?cher 1988). It is shown that the calculated curves are in agreement with experiments. The relationship between the low-dose-rate survival curve slopes for low- and high-LET radiations was obtained. Data for relatively radioresistant cells (EAT, normal fibroblasts, V-79 and CHO-K1) seem to be in agreement with the predicted numbers, while those for radiosensitive cells (AT fibroblasts and xrs-6) do not. Possible reasons for this discrepancy are discussed. In the framework of the model, three factors are important for the high RBE of alpha-particles: (1) an increased radiation yield of induced dsb; (2) a reduced dsb repair rate and (3) an increased probability of losing fragments from the DNA.     

Soft X-ray dosimetry and RBE for survival of Chinese hamster V79 cells

Dosimetry and biological effects of 40 and 50 keV low-energy X-rays generated by a SOFTEX Model CMBW-2 apparatus were studied. Doses were measured using a thin-window parallel-plate ionization chamber; beam quality was assessed using aluminum absorbers; exposure rates per unit current were determined according to the X-ray tube current and exposure times; and thermoluminescent (BeO chip) dosimeters were used to ascertain dose distributions in the irradiation field. The average correction factors for nonuniformity were calculated from the measured dose distributions. The means for ascertaining accurate exposures and doses using these methods are discussed. The dose-survival relationship of Chinese hamster V79 cells were assessed by irradiating them with 40 and 50 kV soft X-rays, 180 kV X-rays, and 60 Co gamma rays. Soft X-rays with three distinct effective energies were tested by changing the tube voltage kV and aluminium filter thicknesses; namely (1) 40 kV without filter, (2) 40 kV with a 0.2 mm thick aluminium filter and (3) 50 kV with a 0.7 mm thick aluminium filter. The effective energies obtained according to attenuation measurements using aluminium for these soft X-rays were 8.1, 11.7 and 18.5 kV, respectively. In this study the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) at 10 per cent survival compared with 60Co gamma rays ranged from 1.5 to 1.6. The RBE of 180 kV X-rays relative to 60Co gamma rays was 1.29. This study provided experimental data for the RBE of V79 cells in the intermediate energy range between hard and ultrasoft X-rays, data for which were previously reported by Goodhead and co-workers (1977, 1979, 1981).     

Comparison of repair of DNA double-strand breaks caused by neutron or gamma radiation in cultured human cells.

The dose-response for the induction of initial double-strand breaks (dsb) in DNA of human epithelioid cells by JANUS 0.85 MeV fission-spectrum neutrons was parabolic as assayed by a calibrated neutral filter elution technique. The relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of these neutrons relative to 60Co gamma-rays was unity. The kinetics of repair after a 60 Gy gamma-ray exposure were biphasic. About 65% of these dsb were rapidly repaired (T 1/2 of approximately 2 min), and the remainder were almost completely removed after 150 min at a slower rate (T 1/2 = 30 min). After the same dose of JANUS neutrons, the rapid repair component was markedly reduced (possibly not a significant repair component), and the bulk of the dsb were sealed more slowly (T 1/2 = 90 min). After 150 min, 25% remained unsealed. Even after a lower neutron dose (20 Gy), a proportion of the dsb were refractory to repair. Thus, unrepaired (or irreparable) dsb induced by high energy neutrons might explain the high RBE of neutrons for cell killing.     

ASPM influences DNA double-strand break repair and represents a potential target for radiotherapy

Abstract

Purpose: In a previous study using HiCEP (High coverage expression profiling), we demonstrated that ASPM (abnormal spindle-like microcephaly-associated) or the most common-type microcephaly (MCPH5) gene was selectively down-regulated by IR (ionizing radiation). The roles of ASPM on radiosensitivity, however, have never been studied.

Materials and methods: Using glioblastoma cell lines and normal human fibroblasts, we investigated how IR sensitivity (survived fraction, DNA repair and chromosome aberration) was affected by the reduction of ASPM by specific siRNA (small interfering RNA).

Results: Down-regulation of ASPM by siRNA enhanced radiosensitivity in three human cell lines examined. Constant-field gel electrophoreses and γ-H2AX (phosphorylated form of Histone H2A variant H2AX) foci analysis showed that ASPM-specific siRNA impaired DNA double-strand breaks (DSB) in irradiated cells. Elevated levels of abnormal chromosomes were also observed following ASPM siRNA. In addition IR-sensitization by ASPM knockdown was not enhanced in DNA-PK (DNA-dependent protein kinase) deficient glioblastoma cells suggesting that ASPM impacts upon a DNA-PK-dependent pathway.

Conclusions: Our results show for the first time that ASPM is required for efficient non-homologous end-joining in mammalian cells. In clinical applications, ASPM could be a novel target for combination therapy with radiation as well as a useful biomarker for tumor prognosis as ever described.     

Characterization of a complex 125I-induced DNA double-strand break: implications for repair

PURPOSE: To examine the role of radiation-induced DNA double-strand break (DSB) structural organization in DSB repair, and characterize the structural features of 125I-induced DSBs that may impact the repair process. METHODS: Plasmid DNA was linearized by sequence-specific targeting using an 125I-labeled triplex-forming oligonucleotide (TFO). Following isolation from agarose gels, base damage structures associated with the DSB ends in plasmids linearized by the 125I-TFO were characterized by probing with the E. coli DNA damage-specific endonuclease and DNA-glycosylases, endonuclease IV (endo IV), endonuclease III (endo III), and formamidopyrimidine-glycosylase (Fpg). RESULTS: Plasmid DNA containing DSBs produced by the high-LET-like effects of 125I-TFO has been shown to support at least 2-fold lower end joining than gamma-ray linearized plasmid, and this may be a consequence of the highly complex structure expected near an 125I-induced DSB end. Therefore, to determine if a high density of base damage exists proximal to the DSBs produced by 125I-TFOs, short fragments of DNA recovered from the DSB end of 125I-TFO-linearized plasmid were enzymatically probed. Base damage and AP site clustering was demonstrated within 3 bases downstream and 7 bases upstream of the targeted base. Furthermore, the pattern and extent of base damage varied depending upon the presence or absence of 2 M DMSO during irradiation. CONCLUSIONS: 125I-TFO-induced DSBs exhibit a high degree of base damage clustering proximal to the DSB end. At least 60% of the nucleotides within 10 bp of the 125I decay site are sensitive to cleavage by endo IV, endo III, or Fpg following damage accumulation in the presence of DMSO, whereas > or = 80% are sensitive in the absence of DMSO. The high degree of base damage clustering associated with the 125I-TFO-induced DSB end may be a major factor leading to its negligible in vitro repair by the non-homologous end-joining pathway (NHEJ).     

CD133+ U87人脑胶质瘤干细胞放射敏感性和DNA双链断裂损伤修复的实验研究

目的 探讨CD133+ U87人脑胶质瘤干细胞放射敏感性及DNA双链断裂损伤修复的情况。 方法 选择人脑胶质瘤U87细胞系,采用免疫流式分选技术分选出CD133+、CD133-细胞;采用克隆形成实验研究细胞的放射敏感性;采用中性单细胞凝胶电泳实验检测4 Gy X射线垂直照射后不同时间点的DNA双链断裂;采用间接免疫荧光技术检测不同时间点磷酸化组蛋白H2AX（γ-H2AX）荧光灶、Rad51（一种同源重组修复蛋白）荧光灶的表达。 结果 假照射条件下,CD133+细胞克隆的形成率明显高于CD133-细胞（t=3.66,P < 0.01）;CD133+细胞经4 Gy照射后的克隆形成率无明显变化（t=0.71,P > 0.05）,而CD133-细胞经4 Gy照射后的克隆形成率下降（t=2.91,P < 0.05）。4 Gy照射后0.5 h,CD133+、CD133-细胞间尾力矩差异无统计学意义（t=1.44,P > 0.05）,照射后6、24 h,CD133+细胞尾力距下降程度大于CD133-细胞（t=5.31和8.09,P < 0.01）;照射后0.5、6 h,CD133+、CD133-细胞间γ-H2AX灶的表达率差异均无统计学意义（t=0.12和0.99,P > 0.05）,照射后24 h,CD133+细胞的γ-H2AX灶的表达率下降程度大于CD133-细胞（t=4.99,P < 0.01）;照射后0.5 h,CD133+、CD133-细胞间Rad51灶的表达率差异无统计学意义（t=1.12,P > 0.05）,照射后6、24 h,CD133-细胞的Rad51灶的表达率与CD133+细胞相比明显下降（t=22.88和12.43,P < 0.01）,而CD133+细胞无明显变化。 结论 CD133+ U87人脑胶质瘤干细胞具有放射抵抗性,可能与其照射后DNA双链的断裂修复能力较高有关。     

Increased bystander mutagenic effect in DNA double-strand break repair-deficient mammalian cells

PURPOSE: We have shown previously that when monolayer cultures of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are exposed to very low fluences of alpha-particles, HPRT mutations are induced in non-irradiated 'bystander' cells in the population. The present investigation was designed to examine the role of DNA repair in this process. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The DNA double-strand repair-deficient mutant cell line xrs-5 was exposed to mean doses of alpha-particles as low as 0.04 cGy whereby less than 1% of the nuclei were traversed by an alpha track and thus received any radiation exposure. RESULTS: With this very low alpha-particle fluence, most of the cells in the xrs-5 population appeared to be at risk for the induction of mutations, indicating a much larger bystander effect than observed with wild-type CHO cells. Molecular structural analyses showed that xrs-5 mutants primarily involved partial and total gene deletions as opposed to wild-type cells where point mutations predominated in bystander cells. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate a very large bystander effect in xrs-5 cells. They support the hypothesis that unrepaired or misrepaired double-strand breaks (DSB), arising from opposed DNA lesions, enhance the sensitivity of bystander cells in xrs-5 cultures to the induction of mutations.     

Increased bystander mutagenic effect in DNA double-strand break repair-deficient mammalian cells

Purpose : We have shown previously that when monolayer cultures of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are exposed to very low fluences of alpha-particles, HPRT mutations are induced in non-irradiated 'bystander' cells in the population. The present investigation was designed to examine the role of DNA repair in this process. Materials and methods : The DNA double-strand repair-deficient mutant cell line xrs-5 was exposed to mean doses of alpha-particles as low as 0.04 cGy whereby less than 1% of the nuclei were traversed by an alpha track and thus received any radiation exposure. Results : With this very low alpha-particle fluence, most of the cells in the xrs-5 population appeared to be at risk for the induction of mutations, indicating a much larger bystander effect than observed with wild-type CHO cells. Molecular structural analyses showed that xrs-5 mutants primarily involved partial and total gene deletions as opposed to wild-type cells where point mutations predominated in bystander cells. Conclusions : These results indicate a very large bystander effect in xrs-5 cells. They support the hypothesis that unrepaired or misrepaired double-strand breaks (DSB), arising from opposed DNA lesions, enhance the sensitivity of bystander cells in xrs-5 cultures to the induction of mutations.     

Cell killing and DNA damage in Chinese hamster V79 cells treated with hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide induces lesions in cells similar to those from ionizing radiation, by a Fenton-type production of hydroxyl radicals. At 4 degrees C significant levels of DAN single-strand breaks (ssb) could be measured using the alkaline elution technique, after a 20-min incubation with 10(-5) mol dm-3 H2O2. Only at higher concentrations of H2O2 (greater than 10(-4) mol dm-3) where the levels of ssb measured corresponded to that induced by more than 18 Gy of X-rays, was any significant cell killing detected in a clonogenic assay. Cell killing was observed to coincide with the measurement of significant levels of DNA double-strand breaks (dsb) using the filter elution technique at pH 9.6. This suggests that dsb and not ssb are important as regards hydroxyl-radical-induced cell kill, as found for ionizing radiation. The correlation of induced dsb with lethal events showed that the predicted lethal effect of the H2O2-induced dsb was approximately 5 times less than that of X-ray-induced dsb. This is compared with data previously obtained which showed differences in the lethality of dsb with the quality of radiation (Prise et al. 1987).     

Influence of DNA double-strand break rejoining on clonogenic survival and micronucleus yield in human cell lines

PURPOSE: To examine the role of DNA double-strand break (DSB) rejoining in cell survival and micronucleus yield after 60Co gamma-irradiation. MATERIALS AND METHOD: Thirteen human cell lines (six glioblastoma, five prostate, one melanoma, one squamous cell carcinoma) were irradiated with 60Co gamma-rays to doses of 0-10Gy for cell survival and micronucleus measurements and 0-100Gy for DSB rejoining. Measurements were performed using standard clonogenic, micronucleus and constant-field gel electrophoresis assays. RESULTS: Radioresistance and micronucleus yield were positively correlated (r=0.74, p=0.004). A significant cell type-dependent correlation was demonstrated between total (0-20 h) DSB rejoining and cell survival (r=0.86, p=0.03 for glioblastomas; r=0.79, p=0.04 for other cell lines), with more resistant cell lines showing higher levels of DSB rejoining. No relationship was apparent between fast (0-2 h) or slow (2-20 h) DSB rejoining and clonogenic survival. While there was no relationship between total or slow DSB rejoining and micronucleus yield, a significant and cell type-specific correlation emerged between fast rejoining and micronucleus yield for the glioblastomas (r=0.89, p=0.04) and other cell lines (r=0.76, p=0.04). Cell lines with higher levels of DSB rejoining within 2 h of irradiation showed higher yields of micronuclei. CONCLUSION: Fast DSB rejoining, possibly through interaction with slow DSB rejoining, appears to play an important role in the formation of micronuclei. However, total DSB rejoining reflects intrinsic radiosensitivity. Consideration of differences in DSB rejoining kinetics might contribute to a better understanding of the significance of cell survival and micronucleus data in the clinical and radiation protection setting.     

Time-lapse microscopy and DNA double-strand breakage of Chinese hamster cells under conditions promoting or preventing PLD repair after irradiation with 60Co gamma rays

We have confirmed previous time-lapse microscopic observations (Suzuki 1985) using Chinese hamster hai and V79 cells. The proportion of non-dividing to dividing cells was the same under conditions of potentially lethal damage (PLD) repair and non-PLD repair after irradiation with 60Co gamma-rays. This finding suggested that the radiation-induced damage to cellular DNA was similarly repaired so that cells undergo a first division to the same extent under both sets of conditions. In fact, direct measurement of double-strand breaks (dsb) in DNA from the two cell lines by the neutral elution technique showed no differences either in the initial amount of damage or in the time-course under conditions promoting or preventing PLD repair. These results indicate that PLD repair (i.e. an increase in cell survival) cannot be simply explained by a difference in the repair of dsb, but it can perhaps be explained by assuming that DNA damage is repaired with either fewer or more errors in the presence or absence of PLD repair respectively.     

Kinetics of DNA double-strand break repair throughout the cell cycle as assayed by pulsed field gel electrophoresis in CHO cells.

Repair of DNA double-strand breaks (dsb) was measured in exponentially growing, plateau-phase and synchronized G1, G1/S, early S, mid-S, late S, G2 + M and mitotic CHO cells. Cells were exposed to 50 Gy X-rays and allowed to repair (up to 4 h) in suspension at 37 degrees C. The dsb rejoining was measured by means of asymmetric field inversion gel electrophoresis (AFIGE), a pulsed-field gel electrophoresis technique. The fraction of DNA-associated [14C]thymidine activity released from the plug (FAR) during electrophoresis was used as a parameter to determine the number of dsb present in the DNA. The assay had been previously calibrated using 125I-decay and its sensitivity in detecting dsb throughout the cell cycle established. Biphasic kinetics of dsb rejoining with a fast and a slow component were obtained throughout the cell cycle, including mitosis, as well as in the various stages of growth. Repair kinetics were described mathematically as the sum of two exponential functions. The repair half-times calculated for the fast component by least-square fitting to the data were in the range of 7-14 min, with the shorter values reached in mid-S and late S and the longer ones during G1 and mitosis. The repair half-times of the slow component were in the range between 60 and 90 min and did not show consistent fluctuations throughout the cell cycle. The fraction of dsb repaired by the slow component ranged from 18% to 37% and did not show consistent variation throughout the cell cycle either. These results suggest that the state of chromatin condensation has only a limited impact on the ability of the cells to rejoin dsb, and indicate that the cell cycle-dependent fluctuations in radiosensitivity cannot be explained by alterations in the rate of rejoining of dsb. The repair half-times of the slow component of dsb rejoining were similar to the half-times of rejoining of chromosome breaks as visualized by the technique of premature chromosome condensation, suggesting a cause-effect relationship between rejoining of this subject of dsb and rejoining of chromosome breaks.     

Similarities in the repair kinetics of sublethal and potentially lethal X-ray damage in log phase Chinese hamster V79 cells

We have compared the repair kinetics of X-ray-induced sublethal damage (SLD) and potentially lethal damage (PLD) in V79 cells during postirradiation incubation in growth medium at 37 degrees C. Kinetics of SLD repair were studied by dose fractionation (D1 + D2 = 2 + 2, 4 + 2, 4 + 4, 10 + 4 and 10 + 7 Gy). Kinetics of PLD repair were studied by incubating cells with 0.5 M hypertonic saline (HS) for 20 min at various times after irradiation. The repair of SLD, after 2, 4 and 10 Gy, was complete in about 11, 23 and 62 min, respectively. This repair time was independent of the magnitude of dose D2 (test dose). The repair of PLD, after 2, 4 and 10 Gy, was also complete in about 9, 23 and 61 min, respectively. These data indicate that: (1) the kinetics of repair of SLD for a given dose are independent of the magnitude of the test dose D2; (2) the time taken to complete the repair (repair time) is dependent on dose D1, i.e. the larger the dose D1 the longer the repair time; (3) for a given dose, the repair times assayed either by dose fractionation or by HS treatment are similar; and (4) similarities in the repair times may imply that SLD and PLD are the same. The relationship between the repair kinetics and the shape of the shoulder on fractionated survival curves is discussed.