Clinical practice guidelines for the maintenance of patient physical safety in the intensive care unit: use of restraining therapies--American College of Critical Care Medicine Task Force 2001-2002

OBJECTIVE: To develop clinical practice guidelines for the use of restraining therapies to maintain physical and psychological safety of adult and pediatric patients in the intensive care unit. PARTICIPANTS: A multidisciplinary, multispecialty task force of experts in critical care practice was convened from the membership of the American College of Critical Care Medicine (ACCM), the Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM), and the American Association of Critical Care Nurses (AACN). EVIDENCE: The task force members reviewed the published literature (MEDLINE articles, textbooks, etc.) and provided expert opinion from which consensus was derived. Relevant published articles were reviewed individually for validity using the Cochrane methodology (http://hiru.mcmaster.ca/cochrane/ or www.cochrane.org). CONSENSUS PROCESS: The task force met as a group and by teleconference to identify the pertinent literature and derive consensus recommendations. Consideration was given to both the weight of scientific information within the literature and expert opinion. Draft documents were composed by a task force steering committee and debated by the task force members until consensus was reached by nominal group process. The task force draft then was reviewed, assessed, and edited by the Board of Regents of the ACCM. After steering committee approval, the draft document was reviewed and approved by the SCCM Council. CONCLUSIONS: The task force developed nine recommendations with regard to the use of physical restraints and pharmacologic therapies to maintain patient safety in the intensive care unit.     

Guidelines for critical care medicine training and continuing medical education

OBJECTIVE: Critical care medicine trainees and faculty must acquire and maintain the skills necessary to provide state-of-the art clinical care to critically ill patients, to improve patient outcomes, optimize intensive care unit utilization, and continue to advance the theory and practice of critical care medicine. This should be accomplished in an environment dedicated to compassionate and ethical care. PARTICIPANTS: A multidisciplinary panel of professionals with expertise in critical care education and the practice of critical care medicine under the direction of the American College of Critical Care Medicine. SCOPE: Physician education in critical care medicine in the United States should encompass all disciplines that provide care in the intensive care unit and all levels of training: from medical students through all levels of postgraduate training and continuing medical education for all providers of clinical critical care. The scope of this guideline includes physician education in the United States from residency through ongoing practice after subspecialization. DATA SOURCES AND SYNTHESIS: Relevant literature was accessed via a systematic Medline search as well as by requesting references from all panel members. Subsequently, the bibliographies of obtained literature were reviewed for additional references. In addition, a search of organization-based published material was conducted via the Internet. This included but was not limited to material published by the American College of Critical Care Medicine, Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education, and other primary and specialty organizations. Collaboratively and iteratively, the task force met, by conference call and in person, to construct the tenets and ultimately the substance of this guideline. CONCLUSIONS: Guidelines for the continuum of education in critical care medicine from residency through specialty training and ongoing throughout practice will facilitate standardization of physician education in critical care medicine.     

Rationing critical care medicine: recent studies and current trends

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This paper reviews the literature on the rationing of critical care resources. RECENT FINDINGS: Although much has been written about the concept of rationing, there have been few scientific studies as to its prevalence. A recent meta-analysis reviewed all previously published studies on rationing access to intensive care units but little is known about practices within the intensive care unit. Much literature in the past few years has focused on the growing use of critical care resources and projections for the future. Several authors suggest there may be a crisis in financial or personnel resources if some rationing does not take place. Other papers have argued that the methods of rationing critical care previously proposed, such as limiting the care of dying patients or using cost-effectiveness analysis to determine care, may not be effective or viewed as ethical by some. Finally, several recent papers review how critical care is practiced and allocated in India and Asian countries that already practice open rationing in their health care systems. SUMMARY: There is currently no published evidence that overt rationing is taking place in critical care medicine. There is growing evidence that in the future, the need for critical care may outstrip financial resources unless some form of rationing takes place. It is also clear from the literature that choosing how to ration critical care will be a difficult task.     

重症监护室护理记录单的改进与应用

目的 对重症监护室原有的护理记录单进行改进,使其更全面细致地反映重症监护室病人的病情变化和护理过程,减少护士记录时间.方法 在我院原重症监护护理记录单的基础上,增加了监护项目、用英文缩写字母或数字代替文字记录.结果 经过1年的培训、应用和完善,重症监护室的护士已经全部掌握了记录方法,缩短了记录时间.结论 新版<重症监护护理记录单>,达到了记录的便捷与高效,使及时记录得以落实,减轻了书写工作量,使护士有更多的时间和精力为患者提供直接护理服务.     

重症监护室护理记录单的改进与应用

目的 对重症监护室原有的护理记录单进行改进,使其更全面细致地反映重症监护室病人的病情变化和护理过程,减少护士记录时间.方法 在我院原重症监护护理记录单的基础上,增加了监护项目、用英文缩写字母或数字代替文字记录.结果 经过1年的培训、应用和完善,重症监护室的护士已经全部掌握了记录方法,缩短了记录时间.结论 新版〈重症监护护理记录单〉,达到了记录的便捷与高效,使及时记录得以落实,减轻了书写工作量,使护士有更多的时间和精力为患者提供直接护理服务.     

Clinical practice guidelines for support of the family in the patient-centered intensive care unit: American College of Critical Care Medicine Task Force 2004-2005

OBJECTIVE: To develop clinical practice guidelines for the support of the patient and family in the adult, pediatric, or neonatal patient-centered ICU. PARTICIPANTS: A multidisciplinary task force of experts in critical care practice was convened from the membership of the American College of Critical Care Medicine (ACCM) and the Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) to include representation from adult, pediatric, and neonatal intensive care units. EVIDENCE: The task force members reviewed the published literature. The Cochrane library, Cinahl, and MedLine were queried for articles published between 1980 and 2003. Studies were scored according to Cochrane methodology. Where evidence did not exist or was of a low level, consensus was derived from expert opinion. CONSENSUS PROCESS: The topic was divided into subheadings: decision making, family coping, staff stress related to family interactions, cultural support, spiritual/religious support, family visitation, family presence on rounds, family presence at resuscitation, family environment of care, and palliative care. Each section was led by one task force member. Each section draft was reviewed by the group and debated until consensus was achieved. The draft document was reviewed by a committee of the Board of Regents of the ACCM. After steering committee approval, the draft was approved by the SCCM Council and was again subjected to peer review by this journal. CONCLUSIONS: More than 300 related studies were reviewed. However, the level of evidence in most cases is at Cochrane level 4 or 5, indicating the need for further research. Forty-three recommendations are presented that include, but are not limited to, endorsement of a shared decision-making model, early and repeated care conferencing to reduce family stress and improve consistency in communication, honoring culturally appropriate requests for truth-telling and informed refusal, spiritual support, staff education and debriefing to minimize the impact of family interactions on staff health, family presence at both rounds and resuscitation, open flexible visitation, way-finding and family-friendly signage, and family support before, during, and after a death.     

Cardiovascular nurses' experiences of working in the COVID-19 intensive care unit: A qualitative study

BackgroundCardiovascular nurses’ skills and experiences of cardiac critical care, management of cardiovascular emergencies, and mechanical circulatory support have been considered vital in providing nursing care for COVID-19 patients in intensive care units during the COVID-19 pandemic. To our knowledge, there are no studies have focused on the contribution and experiences of cardiovascular nurses in the critical care of COVID-19 patients.ObjectivesTo explore the experiences of cardiovascular nurses working in a COVID-19 intensive care unit during the pandemic.MethodsThe study was conducted as a qualitative study with phenomenological approach in June-December 2020. Study data were gathered from ten cardiovascular nurses through semi-structured interviews.ResultsSix themes emerged from the interview data: the duties and responsibilities in a COVID-19 intensive care unit; the differences of COVID-19 intensive care unit practices from cardiovascular practices; the transferrable skills of cardiovascular nurses in a COVID-19 intensive care unit; the difficulties encountered working in a COVID-19 intensive care unit; the difficulty of working with personal protective equipment; and the psychosocial effects of working in a COVID-19 intensive care unit.ConclusionCardiovascular nurses made an important contribution to the management of nursing services with their experiences and skills in the COVID-19 pandemic.     

Experience with an intensive care unit in a developing country.

In September 1963 an intensive care unit was established at the Lagos University Teaching Hospital in Nigeria. The incidence of mortality was significantly high (38%). This was attributed to several factors: (1) severity of illnesses, types of illness and antecedent period of neglect; (2) lack of a critical care medicine program; (3) limited numbers of skilled, full-time intensive care unit personnel, including physicians, nurses, inhalation therapists and paramedics, and (4) the high incidence of sepsis in the intensive care unit.     

Practice and clinical decision-making autonomy among Hellenic critical care nurses

BACKGROUND: Nursing autonomy has been associated with better patient-outcomes; therefore, it is a priority for critical care nursing management. Low authority has been a persistent complaint of Hellenic intensive care unit nurses; however, issues of nursing autonomy have not been previously addressed empirically in Hellas. PURPOSE: To investigate: (1) the perceived contribution to clinical decision-making, (2) the degree of autonomy in technical tasks, and (3) factors related to practice autonomy in critical care nurses in Hellas. Additionally, because of the lack of sufficient tools, this study also aimed to construct and to validate a new tool for assessing practice and clinical decision-making autonomy among Hellenic intensive care unit nurses. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A Hellenic intensive care nursing autonomy scale, focused on technical aspects of care, was developed through literature review, a panel of experts and a pilot study in a random sample of 120 respondents. Items were refined by factor analysis, which revealed three major conceptual categories of autonomy: (1) basic technical, (2) advanced technical, and (3) clinical decision. Hellenic intensive care nursing autonomy (Likert 4, range: 38-152), was distributed to all nurses employed in intensive care units in Hellas (n = 807; attrition: 27%). Comparisons, correlation and multivariate regression were employed. RESULTS: The Hellenic intensive care nursing autonomy scale exhibited appropriate reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.86) and validity properties. Autonomy scores were moderate (mean: 105.24 +/- 9.58). Highest autonomy was attributed to basic technical tasks, followed by advanced technical tasks and decision-making. Male gender and higher education were predictors of higher overall, advanced technical and decision-making autonomy (P = 0.01). Bachelor degree graduates scored higher in decisional autonomy (P = 0.03). Intensive care unit experience and type of intensive care unit were also important determinants of decisional autonomy (P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: The results revealed moderate autonomy in technical tasks and low decisional autonomy among Hellenic intensive care unit nurses. Factors related to the educational preparation of nurses, gender issues and institutional characteristics might hinder intensive care unit nurses' autonomy in Hellas.     

An integrative review and meta‐synthesis of the scope and impact of intensive care liaison and outreach services

Aim. To determine activities and outcomes of intensive care unit Liaison Nurse/Outreach services. The review comprised two stages: (1) integrative review of qualitative and quantitative studies examining intensive care liaison/outreach services in the UK and Australia and (2) meta‐synthesis using the Nursing Role Effectiveness Model as an a priori model. Background. Acute ward patients are at risk of adverse events and patients recovering from critical illness are vulnerable to deterioration. Proactive and reactive strategies have been implemented to facilitate timely identification of patients at risk. Design. Systematic review. Methods. A range of data bases was searched from 2000–2008. Studies were eligible for review if they included adults in any setting where intensive care unit Liaison Nurse or Outreach services were provided. From 1423 citations and 65 abstracts, 20 studies met the inclusion criteria. Results. Intensive care liaison/outreach services had a beneficial impact on intensive care mortality, hospital mortality, unplanned intensive care admissions/re‐admissions, discharge delay and rates of adverse events. A range of research methods were used; however, it was not possible to conclude unequivocally that the intensive care liaison/outreach service had resulted in improved outcomes. The major unmeasured benefit across all studies was improved communication pathways between critical care and ward staff. Outcomes for nurses in the form of improved confidence, knowledge and critical care skills were identified in qualitative studies but not measured. Conclusion. The varied nature of the intensive care liaison/outreach services reviewed in these studies suggests that they should be treated as bundled interventions, delivering a treatment package of care. Further studies should examine the impact of critical care support on the confidence and skills of ward nurses. Relevance to clinical practice. Advanced nursing roles can improve outcomes for patients who are vulnerable to deterioration. The Nursing Role Effectiveness Model provides a useful framework for evaluating the impact of these roles.     

Economies of scale in British intensive care units and combined intensive care/high dependency units

Objective To estimate the relationship between size of intensive care unit and combined intensive care/high dependency units and average costs per patient day.Design Retrospective data analysis. Multiple regression of average costs on critical care unit size, controlling for teaching status, type of unit, occupancy rate and average length of stay.Setting Seventy-two United Kingdom adult intensive care and combined intensive care/high dependency units submitting expenditure data for the financial year 2000–2001 as part of the Critical Care National Cost Block Programme.Interventions None.Measurements and results The main outcome measures were total cost per patient day and the following components: staffing cost, consumables cost and clinical support services costs. Nursing Whole Time Equivalents per patient day were recorded. The unit size variable has a negative and statistically significant (p<0.05) coefficient in regressions for total, staffing and consumables cost. The predicted average cost for a seven-bed unit is about 96% of that predicted for a six-bed critical care unit.Conclusion Policy makers should consider the possibility of economies of scale in planning intensive care and combined intensive care/high dependency units.     

Guidelines and levels of care for pediatric intensive care units

The practice of pediatric critical care medicine has matured dramatically during the past decade. These guidelines are presented to update the existing guidelines published in 1993. Pediatric critical care services are provided in level I and level II units. Within these guidelines, the scope of pediatric critical care services is discussed, including organizational and administrative structure, hospital facilities and services, personnel, drugs and equipment, quality monitoring, and training and continuing education.     

Workload of postanaesthesia care unit nurses and intensive care overflow

The admission of intensive care unit (ICU) overflow patients in the post anaesthesia care unit (PACU) has come about as a result of an increasing demand for ICU services, which is not followed by a respective increase in the number of available beds. This has raised many concerns from nurses, with extensive workload and lack of personnel being the most important. This study was conducted in the General University Hospital of Patras, Greece, from 1 January 2003 to 30 June 2004. Admissions of ICU patients in the PACU were recorded and Project Research in Nursing (PRN), a Canadian workload measurement system, was used to estimate nursing workload. One hundred and three ICU patients were admitted and they stayed for a total time of 2812 hours. PRN scores of these ICU patients were much higher than for post anaesthesia patients. Clinically important increases of total PRN score, total care time and nursing personnel needs were evident in the presence of an ICU overflow patient during all shifts. Unless there is the appropriate number of personnel, increases in total care time are likely to lead to the neglect of post anaesthesia patients' needs.     

Factors influencing length of stay in the intensive care unit.

BACKGROUND: Long stays in the intensive care unit are associated with high costs and burdens on patients and patients' families and in turn affect society at large. Although factors that affect length of stay and outcomes of care in the intensive care unit have been studied extensively, the conclusions reached have not been reviewed to determine whether they reveal an organizational pattern that might be of practical use in reducing length of stay in the unit. OBJECTIVE: To identify and categorize the factors associated with prolonged stays in the intensive care unit and to describe briefly the nonmedical interventions to date designed to reduce length of stay. METHODS: Articles published between January 1990 and March 2005 in English-language journals indexed by MEDLINE were searched for studies on outcomes and costs of care in the intensive care unit and on care at the end of life. RESULTS: The emerging consensus is that length of stay in the intensive care unit is exacerbated by several increasingly discernible medical, social, psychological, and institutional factors. At the same time, several nonmedical, experimental interventions have been designed to reduce length of stay. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions involving palliative care, ethics consultations, and other methods to increase communication between healthcare personnel, patients, and patients' families may be helpful in decreasing length of stay in the intensive care unit. Further studies are needed to provide a strategy for targeting specific risk factors indicated by the literature review.     

Developing and evaluating critical care follow-up

The effects of critical illness not only affect the patient and relative during the intensive care stay but often affect for a considerable time afterwards. A growing body of opinion and evidence suggests that many of the needs of those who have been critically ill can be met through critical care follow-up services. A growing number of follow-up services now exist. Their establishment, development and evaluation pose significant challenges for those involved. This paper describes Bassetlaw hospital's critical care follow-up service, how it was established and what an elementary service evaluation project has shown. The findings and experiences are compared with others in published literature, and the paper may be of interest to those who are currently involved in follow-up or who plan to develop such services in the future.     

Critical care management of major disasters: a practical guide to disaster preparation in the intensive care unit

Recent events and regulatory mandates have underlined the importance of medical planning and preparedness for catastrophic events. The purpose of this review is to provide a brief summary of current commonly identified threats, an overview of mass critical care management, and a discussion of resource allocation to provide the intensive care unit (ICU) director with a practical guide to help prepare and coordinate the activities of the multidisciplinary critical care team in the event of a disaster.     

Epidemiology, classification, initial care, and administrative considerations for critically burned patients

The care of major burn injuries is a critical care endeavor from the initial evaluation and admission until the patient is discharged from the burn intensive care unit. A thorough history and physical examination are essential and require expertise to classify each burn injury. The initial treatment of the burn must address stopping the burning process, insuring a patient airway, assessing inhalation injury, initiation of adequate fluid and electrolyte resuscitation, appropriate wound care, and institution of ancillary care, such as insertion of nasogastric tubes and urinary catheters, narcotic dosage, tetanus prophylaxis, laboratory studies, and environmental temperature control. Critical care units must be designed, equipped, and staffed to facilitate the safe and effective care of burned patients. A well trained and experienced multidisciplinary burn team under the direction of a surgeon who specializes in burns is essential to the ultimate outcome of the seriously burned patient. Effective communication among the burn team and with the burned patients requires formal protocols for general treatment as well as dynamic individualized care based on careful comprehensive observations and monitoring. The prognosis for these critically injured and ill patients depends on attention to every detail of their care, which can only be accomplished in a sophisticated critical care atmosphere with personnel skilled in intensive care techniques.     

Patient on display--a study of everyday practice in intensive care

BACKGROUND: This study investigates the situated organization in a workplace producing intensive care, that is an intensive care unit (ICU). The workplace research tradition concerns work and interaction/communication in technology-intensive environments. Communication is seen as social action and cannot be separated from production or from the context in which the activities are situated. AIM: The aim of the present study was to explore how intensive care is produced by analysing a recurrent situated activity in the ICU, namely the delivery and reception of a patient coming from the operation unit. METHOD: In the fieldwork, participant observations was used to study everyday practice in an ICU, combined with written field notes. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION: Intensive care is to a great extent produced through routine practices. The division of labour is marked and is taken for granted: everyone knows what to do. The actors' physical location in the room is connected to their functions and work with supportive tools. Verbal reports, visual displays and activities make the information transmission available to everyone in the patient room. Shared understanding of the situation seems to make words redundant when the activities of competent actors are co-ordinated. There is also coordination between the actors in the ICU and the technological equipment, which constantly produces new information that must be interpreted. Enrolled Nurses are physically closest to the patients, the physician is the one most physically distant from patients and Registered Nurses bridge the gap between them. These actors produce and re-produce intensive care through constant sense-making in the here and now at the same time as the past is present in their activities.