Macrophage products IL-1 alpha, TNF alpha and bFGF may mediate multiple cytopathic effects in the developing eyes of GM-CSF transgenic mice

GM-CSF transgenic mice develop eye disease during ontogeny that is mediated by autostimulated macrophages. The ocular pathology is characterized in part by corneal and vitreous neovascularization, pronounced GFAP expression by retinal Müller cells and degeneration of the retinal photoreceptor layer. The invading intraocular macrophages express the genes for the cytokines interleukin-1 alpha, tumor necrosis factor alpha and basic fibroblast growth factor, which may contribute to the multifaceted developmental ocular disorder. These cytokines, suspected to be angiogenic, may be responsible for neovascularization of the cornea in our transgenic animals. GFAP is normally made by astrocytes in the superficial retina and is induced in Müller cells in models of retinal degeneration. This protein is abnormally and copiously produced by Müller cells in the transgenic mice, which we suggest may be due to the release of cytokines from the invading macrophages. We suggest a mechanism by which autostimulated macrophages, through a perturbation of their normal developmental role, may be responsible for photoreceptor cell death in these transgenic animals.     

Retinal degeneration,apoptosis and the c-fos gene

In the past few years, the interest in the research field of apoptosis in the retina has been growing rapidly. We will give a short overview of apoptosis in the context of retinal degeneration and summarize recent data obtained in our laboratory. Based on our findings, we will also discuss possible future strategies to influence apoptotic cell death in the retina and to modulate the time course of retinal dystrophies. Apoptosis is the final common pathway of photoreceptor cell death in several retinal dystrophies as well as in light-induced photoreceptor degeneration. We investigated potential signal transducers for apoptosis in our laboratory and found an essential role of the immediate-early gene product c-Fos in light-induced photoreceptor degeneration. This is of particular interest in light of the finding that c-fos is continuously upregulated concomitant with apoptotic photoreceptor death in animal models of the retinal dystrophy retinitis pigmentosa. Interference with c-fos expression or function might therefore represent a novel means to influence the time course of retinal dystrophies, which are at present incurable diseases.     

Glutathione peroxidase induced in rat retinas to counteract photic injury

PURPOSE: To examine the hypothesis that glutathione peroxidase (GPX) is induced at different time points after retinal exposure to light and localizes in different retinal cells. METHODS: The rats were kept in cyclic light for 2 weeks before the experiments. The animals were maintained in 12-hour light-dark cycles, before and after exposure to intense white fluorescent light, for as long as 24 hours and then returned to cyclic light. Expression of GPX was measured by immunohistocytochemistry and Western and Northern blot analyses. Light-induced retinal damage was determined by the thickness of the outer nuclear layer (ONL) thickness in relation to total retinal thickness. RESULTS: GPX labeling did not appear in the photoreceptor inner segments, and slight labeling was observed in the photoreceptor outer segments or the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells in the normal retina kept in cyclic light. In retinal specimens maintained in light for 12 and 24 hours, GPX labeling was induced in the photoreceptor outer segments and RPE cells. High expression of GPX in the RPE was sustained until day 7 after challenge. In contrast, GPX expression in the photoreceptor outer segments decreased on day 1 and disappeared on days 3 and 7 after exposure. Intense GPX labeling was seen from the internal limiting membrane to the ganglion cell layer. GPX labeling was constantly localized in both high-intensity white light and cyclic conditions, suggesting no induction of GPX in those areas. In addition, GPX labeling was apparent at the posterior retinal pole but not at the peripheral retina. We observed marked upregulation of GPX mRNA in rats kept in high-intensity white light. One, 3, and 7 days after exposure to high-intensity white light, there was a significant difference (P < 0.0001) between the control and experimental groups in the ratio of the outer nuclear layer thickness to the entire retina. CONCLUSIONS: GPX was induced at different time points after exposure to high-intensity white light and localized in different retinal cells. Changes in expression of GPX after exposure to light may be related to the difference in susceptibility of the retina to damage by light.     

挫伤性视网膜病变中光感受器细胞凋亡与相关基因表达的研究

目的探讨挫伤性视网膜病变中Bax、Bcl-2表达与光感受器细胞凋亡的关系。方法自由落体法制作视网膜挫伤模型,行HE染色观察大鼠视网膜组织的病变情况;末端脱氧核酸转移酶介导的脱氧三磷酸尿苷缺口末端标记(TUNEL)法检测感光细胞凋亡情况;PV免疫组织化学法检测视网膜组织中Bax、Bcl-2的表达。结果TUNEL染色显示挫伤后3d组视网膜内可见较多阳性表达的细胞,分布在外核层。余实验组未测到阳性着色细胞。Bax在挫伤后4h即有表达,随时间延长表达逐渐增加,至挫伤后3d达高峰,至7d、14d组表达阴性。Bcl-2的表达在各组均为阴性。结论细胞凋亡是挫伤性视网膜病变的重要机制之一,Bcl-2/Bax相对比值改变可能对细胞凋亡的发生起一定的诱导作用。     

糖尿病大鼠视网膜神经细胞损伤机制的研究

目的 观察糖尿病大鼠视网膜Müller细胞谷氨酸转运体（GLAST）、谷氨酰胺合成酶（GS）及胶质纤维酸性蛋白（GFAP）表达的变化、视网膜神经细胞凋亡的检测以及神经营养因子NT-3的表达,探讨糖尿病（DM）对视网膜神经细胞损伤的机制。设计 实验研究。研究对象 Sprague-Dawley（SD）大鼠82只。 方法 大鼠随机分为正常对照组12只,糖尿病模型组70只。链脲佐菌素诱导实验性DM大鼠模型。RT-PCR法检测视网膜GFAP mRNA表达水平;TUNEL法检测视网膜神经节细胞（RGC）及内核层细胞的凋亡并计数凋亡细胞数量;免疫组织化学技术LSAB法检测GFAP、GLAST、GS、NT-3在视网膜的表达,观察DM大鼠视网膜RGC及内核层细胞功能的改变,用图像分析仪测量免疫组化的显色强度。主要指标 GFAP、GLAST、GS和NT-3的表达量,视网膜内核层和RGC细胞凋亡数。结果 （1）与正常组（1.00±0.02）相比,模型组GFAP阳性表达量（5.22±1.34）明显增加（P=0.000）, GLAST、GS、NT-3阳性表达明显降低。（2）大鼠视网膜凋亡阳性细胞仅见于RGC层和内核层,模型组视网膜内核层细胞及RGC凋亡数量（36.00±6.02,11.48±2.08）比正常组（16.33±2.34,5.34±0.52）显著增加（P均=0.000）。（3）DM大鼠视网膜GFAP mRNA表达（7.00±0.37）比正常组（0.29±0.08）明显增加（P=0.000）。（4）GFAP阳性表达与内核层细胞及RGC凋亡数呈正相关（r=0.88、0.85,P=0.021、0.028 ）;GLAST阳性表达与内核层细胞及RGC凋亡数呈负相关（r=-0.91、-0.89, P=0.014、0.020）,GS阳性表达与内核层细胞及RGC凋亡数呈负相关（r=-0.93、-0.90, P=0.007、0.009）;NT-3阳性表达与内核层细胞及RGC凋亡数呈负相关（r=-0.74、-0.71, P=0.036、0.041）。结论  糖尿病大鼠视网膜神经细胞凋亡增加与Müller细胞的过度反应性增生及神经营养因子的缺失有关,高浓度谷氨酸的兴奋性毒性作用以及神经营养因子NT-3的缺失是其视网膜神经细胞损伤的重要机制。     

Caspase-1 ablation protects photoreceptors in a model of autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa

PURPOSE: Caspase-1 gene expression has been reported to be upregulated during light-induced retinal degeneration and to be reduced after neuroprotective treatments. Thus, caspase-1 may be proapoptotic in the retina. To test directly the role of caspase-1 in photoreceptor apoptosis, three mouse models were analyzed for retinal degeneration in the presence or absence of caspase-1. METHODS: Photoreceptor apoptosis was monitored in one model of induced (exposure to light) and in two models of inherited (rd1, VPP) retinal degeneration. Retinal degeneration was assessed qualitatively by light microscopy and quantitatively by the determination of free nucleosomes with ELISA or by rhodopsin measurements. Gene expression and protein levels were assessed by real-time RT-PCR and by Western blot analysis, respectively. RESULTS: Levels of caspase-1 proenzyme increased in all models of retinal degeneration concomitantly with the onset of cell death. Maturation or classic activity of caspase-1 was not detected in the retina. Ablation of caspase-1 was protective in the model of adRP (VPP mouse), but not in the two other models. Ablation of interleukin-1 receptor type 1 was without effect. Expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 increased in the model protected by caspase-1 ablation. CONCLUSIONS: Increased retinal expression of caspase-1 proenzyme may be a common marker for photoreceptor degeneration. The differential effects of caspase-1 ablation suggests a modulatory role of caspase-1 for photoreceptor apoptosis in some but not all models. Such a modulatory activity may involve a caspase-1 function different from the classic activation of interleukin-1beta.     

Probing inner retinal circuits in the rod pathway: a comparison of c-fos activation in mutant mice

We have used wild-type mice and mice possessing defects in specific retinal circuits in order to more clearly define functional circuits of the inner retina. The retina of the nob mouse lacks communication between photoreceptors and depolarizing bipolar cells (DBCs). Thus, all light driven activity in the nob mouse is mediated via remaining hyperpolarizing bipolar cell (HBC) circuits. Transducin null (Tr alpha-/-) mice lack rod photoreceptor activity and thus remaining retinal circuits are solely generated via cone photoreceptor activity. Activation in inner retinal circuits in each of these mice was identified by monitoring light-induced expression of an immediate early gene, c-fos. The number of cells expressing c-fos in the inner retina was dependent upon stimulus intensity and was altered in a systematic fashion in mice with known retinal mutations. To determine whether c-fos is activated via circuits other than photoreceptors in the outer retina, we examined c-fos expression in tulp1-/- mice that lack photoreceptors in the outer retina; these mice showed virtually no c-fos activity following light exposure. Double-labeling immunohistochemical studies were carried out to more clearly define the population of c-fos expressing amacrine cells. Our results indicate that c-fos may be used to map functional circuits in the retina.     

Caspase 与视网膜细胞凋亡的研究进展

Caspase作为凋亡执行和效应过程中的关键酶,其级联活化反应是导致视网膜上光感受器细胞、神经节细胞等发生凋亡的共同途径,与多种常见眼病如青光眼、视网膜脱离、年龄相关性黄斑变性、缺血性视网膜损伤、视网膜母细胞瘤等的发生发展密切相关,有关Caspase抑制剂的实验研究近年来也备受关注,本文围绕Caspase在视网膜细胞凋亡中的作用及其相关机制进行综述。     

Protective effect of docosahexaenoic acid on oxidative stress-induced apoptosis of retina photoreceptors

PURPOSE: In a recent study, it was demonstrated that docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) promotes the survival of retinal photoreceptors in vitro, delaying apoptosis. However, lipid enrichment in DHA is known to contribute to retina vulnerability to oxidative stress. In this study, the effect of oxidative damage on rat retina neurons in vitro and whether DHA enhances or diminishes this damage were investigated. METHODS: Rat retina neurons in 3-day cultures, with or without DHA, were treated with the oxidant paraquat. After 24 hours, apoptosis, mitochondrial membrane integrity, and Bcl-2 and Bax expression were immunocytochemically determined. RESULTS: Paraquat induced apoptosis in amacrine and photoreceptor neurons, major neuronal types in the culture. Neuronal apoptosis was accompanied by mitochondrial membrane depolarization, an increase in the amount of photoreceptors expressing Bax, and a decrease in those expressing Bcl-2. Addition of DHA reduced photoreceptor apoptosis by almost half, simultaneously preserving their mitochondrial membrane integrity. DHA blocked the paraquat-induced increase in Bax expression and remarkably upregulated Bcl-2 expression. Glia-derived neurotrophic factor, a photoreceptor trophic factor, only slightly increased Bcl-2 expression and did not protect photoreceptors from oxidative damage. Similarly, other fatty acids tested did not prevent photoreceptor apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that oxidative damage induces apoptosis in retinal neurons during their early development in culture and suggest that the loss of mitochondrial membrane integrity is crucial in the apoptotic death of these cells. DHA activates intracellular mechanisms that prevent this loss and by modulating the levels of pro- and antiapoptotic proteins of the Bcl-2 family selectively protect photoreceptors from oxidative stress.     

The dihydropyridine isradipine inhibits the murine but not the bovine a‐wave response of the electroretinogram

Purpose: In order to record light‐evoked responses from photoreceptor cells and the higher neuronal retinal network, the isolated vertebrate retina represents a sensitive tool for basic research of retinal function and for testing the toxicity of ocular therapeutics. In the past, this in vitro technique was optimized for frog and bovine retina; it should be transferred now to the isolated murine retina because the model could allow for functional testing of genes involved in retinal signalling using wild‐type and gene‐inactivated mice. Thus, alterations in the electroretinogram (ERG) may reveal differences in retinal information processing because of the inactivation of a specific gene. Methods: We used a superfused vertebrate retina assay to test bovine and murine retina. Results: In order to evaluate the sensitivity of the ERG recording technique from the isolated murine retina, we first determined the light intensity response and the stability of the a‐wave amplitude during ERG recording, which did not differ between the species. However, testing the dihydropyridine sensitivity of the a‐wave, we found that the murine a‐wave was highly sensitive towards racemic isradipine (8–25 nM ) but the bovine retina a‐wave was not. A similar species‐dependent difference was observed for mibefradil (10 μM ). Conclusion: Murine and bovine retina differ with respect to transretinal signalling. At the level of photoreceptor cells, the ERG/a‐wave is modulated by isradipine‐sensitive voltage‐gated Ca²⁺ channels, which trigger feedback signalling to photoreceptors.     

Retinal regional differences in photoreceptor cell death and regeneration in light-lesioned albino zebrafish

Teleost fish regenerate retinal cells from a population of inner nuclear layer (INL) stem cells. To characterize photoreceptor regeneration in zebrafish (Danio rerio), adult albino fish were subjected to constant intense light to cause photoreceptor cell death. Retinal morphometry was performed on histological sections of control and light-lesioned albino retinas to compare the extent of light damage in the ventral, central and dorsal retinal regions. In addition, opsin immunohistochemistry and TUNEL were used to compare photoreceptor cell death in these different retinal areas, while PCNA immunolabeling quantified the cell proliferation that precedes the photoreceptor regeneration. Transgenic albino; Tg(alpha1-tubulin:egfp) zebrafish were also exposed to the intense light in order to examine regeneration-related gene expression changes. The light-lesioned retinas are characterized by extensive rod and cone photoreceptor cell death in the central and dorsal regions. In contrast, many of the rods and cones survive in the ventral retina. The highest levels of INL cell proliferation, which occurs subsequent to photoreceptor death, correspond to the retinal regions that suffer the greatest levels of photoreceptor damage. In the ventral retina, where photoreceptor cell death is minimal, cell proliferation is confined to the ONL. In addition, EGFP expression from the alpha1-tubulin promoter is increased in Müller glial cells in the light-damaged central and dorsal retina, while transgene expression in the ventral retina is restricted to small, round INL cells. Furthermore, expression of the HuC/D neuronal antigen is detected in a subpopulation of the Müller cells in the light-damaged superior retinal region. These data demonstrate that adult albino zebrafish display retinal regional differences in photoreceptor cell death and in the regeneration-related INL cell proliferation response. The high levels of INL cell proliferation and alpha1-tubulin:egfp transgene expression in the Müller cells may be graded in response to the degree of photoreceptor cell death. This suggests that the levels of photoreceptor damage may directly influence cell responses in the underlying retinal layers.     

大鼠慢性高眼压下视网膜损伤中HIF-1α和caspase-9的作用

目的:探讨HIF-1α和caspase-9表达与高眼压视网膜损伤的关系。方法:大鼠60只随机分为6组,每组10只20眼。分别为假手术对照组;高眼压3,7,14,21,28d组。巩膜静脉烧烙法制作高眼压模型。应用免疫组织化学法,RT-PCR法,Western印迹法检测各组视网膜组织中HIF-1α和caspase-9基因mRNA及蛋白表达。结果:HIF-1α和casepase-9阳性染色主要位于视网膜内层即视网膜节细胞层和内颗粒层。HIF-1α和caspase-9mRNA和蛋白在正常视网膜中有低浓度的表达,高眼压3d后,表达明显上升,HIF-1α到7d时达到高峰,caspase-9到14d达到高峰,随后有所下降,但仍明显高于正常组的表达水平,差异有统计学意义。结论:HIF-1α和caspase-9是青光眼神经节细胞凋亡的发生和进展中重要的病理生理机制。     

视网膜损伤与c-fos基因表达

c-fos基因可能是最具特征性的即早基因(immediate early gene,IEG)。c-fos基因在调控视网膜功能上有重要作用。视网膜损伤,如光、缺血、穿通伤、视网膜脱离等,可诱导视网膜c-fos基因表达的改变。损伤性刺激可能是通过第一信使和第二信使的激活使c-fos基因在核内表达;c-fos基因调控着后期效应基因的表达,在对外界刺激-转录耦联的信息传递过程中起着第三信使的重要作用。本文就视网膜损伤所致c-fos基因表达的变化及其有关机理作一综述。     

Morphologic characteristics of retinal degeneration induced by sodium iodate in mice

PURPOSE: Retinal degeneration induced by sodium iodate (NaIO( 3)) in mice was evaluated morphologically. METHODS: Male and female ICR and C57BL mice were intraperitoneally administered 100 mg/kg NaIO(3) at 7 weeks of age, and were killed 6, 12, 24 hrs, and 3, 7 and 28 days after the treatment. Retinas were examined histologically, ultrastructurally, immunohistochemically, and by the TUNEL method. RESULTS: Retinal degeneration was evoked in all NaIO(3)-treated mice. The primary site of damage appeared in the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells followed by photoreceptor cell degeneration. Initially, the RPE cells showed necrosis starting 6 hrs post-NaIO(3), followed by photoreceptor outer segment disruption and photoreceptor cell apoptosis at 24 hrs; photoreceptor cell apoptosis peaked at day 3 and was completed by day 7. At day 3, Müller cell proliferation, macrophage migration within the retina, and regeneration of damaged RPE cells occurred. Finally at day 7 and day 28, the retina showed a mosaic pattern of relatively normal retina and areas lacking RPE cells and photoreceptor cells. CONCLUSIONS: RPE cell necrosis followed by photoreceptor cell apoptosis and the resulting mosaic pattern of the retina phenotypically resembles gyrate atrophy of the choroid and retina.