Closing loopholes in the biological weapons convention

The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) received two major blows in the past months. Negotiations for a protocol to strengthen the BTWC came to a halt and the Fifth Review Conference was unable to reach agreement on a final declaration. In addition, ongoing research projects, predominantly in the United States, are threatening to undermine the comprehensive ban on the development, production and use of biological weapons. This article provides two examples of research that exploit perceived loopholes in the BTWC or impinge on the scope of the Convention, namely the planned use of biological agents for forced drug eradication and the development of anti‐material agents.     

The potential for abuse of genetics in militarily significant biological weapons

Concern has been expressed at successive Review Conferences of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) regarding the possible misuse of new biological knowledge; this article reviews some of these developments. Genetic manipulation, and genomics in particular, would modify existing pathogens and render previously harmless organisms pathogenic. Viruses could be modified as vectors to alter their pathogenicity in animals and man or act as carriers for genes or toxins. Plant pathogens, particularly fungi, could be modified as biological warfare agents against crops. An effective verification protocol for the BTWC is an essential part of the web of deterrence against these developments.     

Hope and ambition turn to dismay and neglect: the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention in 2001

The background to the failure of the December 2001 Fifth Review Conference of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) to agree a politically binding final declaration is discussed. Negotiations in the Ad Hoc Group (AHG) of the BTWC, which was set up after the 1994 Special Conference, are described. Accusations of non-compliance with the BTWC are not new and it is concluded that the ultimate failure of the 2001 Review Conference was principally, but not entirely, due to rejection by the United States that the AHG should remain in being. Strengthening the BTWC remains as important as ever, but it remains to be seen if there is the political will to achieve this.     

A short history of biological warfare

Biological weapons have been used in war from the start of recorded history. This article reviews the history of the subject, including the outbreak of the Black Death and the use of smallpox against American Indians. The new science of microbiology was misused from soon after its start and, despite the 1925 Geneva Protocol, the Japanese experimented extensively on prisoners in China. The Allies carried out extensive research during the Second World War, notably the United Kingdom into anthrax on Gruinard Island and the United States into a variety of agents. Despite the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), a major programme continued in the former Soviet Union (leading to an accidental outbreak of anthrax). Most recently Iraq was revealed as having an extensive programme, with weaponization of large amounts of various agents, and several terrorists groups have attempted to use biological agents as weapons. Modern developments in biotechnology could lead to even more serious developments, and effective preventive measures, including strengthening of the BWC, are imperative.     

A short history of biological warfare

Biological weapons have been used in war from the start of recorded history. This article reviews the history of the subject, including the outbreak of the Black Death and the use of smallpox against American Indians. The new science of microbiology was misused from soon after its start and, despite the 1925 Geneva Protocol, the Japanese experimented extensively on prisoners in China. The Allies carried out extensive research during the Second World War, notably the United Kingdom into anthrax on Gruinard Island and the United States into a variety of agents. Despite the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), a major programme continued in the former Soviet Union (leading to an accidental outbreak of anthrax). Most recently Iraq was revealed as having an extensive programme, with weaponization of large amounts of various agents, and several terrorists groups have attempted to use biological agents as weapons. Modern developments in biotechnology could lead to even more serious developments, and effective preventive measures, including strengthening of the BWC, are imperative.     

Investigative science and technology supporting the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)

The Chemical Weapons Convention (hereinafter ‘the Convention’), an international disarmament and non-proliferation treaty, entered into force in 1997. It prohibits the development, stockpiling, transfer and use of chemical weapons. Today there are 193 nations (‘States Parties’) that are members. The Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), in The Hague, is the implementing body of the Convention. Herein we outline the verification regime of the Convention and how the work of the OPCW has evolved in recent years in response to the use of chemical warfare agents (CWAs), as well as potential impacts from advances in science and technology (S&T). We describe challenges recognized from recent contingency operations in response to the use of CWAs and how S&T might support the development of safe and effective approaches to verification. The role of OPCW’s Scientific Advisory Board and its Temporary Working Group on Investigative Science and Technology are discussed; specifically, how scientific advice supports the development of the capability for the verification of alleged use of CWAs, as well as informing the decisions made by policymakers. The importance of engagement with forensic agencies for the continuing development of state-of-the-art approaches to verification is highlighted.     

Embryonic stem cell research: terminological ambiguity may lead to legal obscurity

National regulation on embryonic stem cell research in the European Union is ambiguous, due to a lack of consistent scientific terminology as exemplified by the Dutch Embryos Act. To force a breakthrough in this ethically dubious research topic, a more careful use of terminology would be in the interest of both the scientific community and the lawmakers, in order to avoid terminology becoming associated with research or applications for which it is inappropriate. Therefore I will first clarify the technological possibilities in an age of biological control. Secondly, we will critically analyse the statements of the European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine concerning embryo research and cloning. The Convention prohibits human reproductive cloning but does not take a clear position on so-called therapeutic cloning. Finally, we will give an overview of the most recent legislative initiatives within the European Union on this matter.     

Operation Desert Shield: medical aspects of weapons of mass destruction.

Our concern over possible use of weapons of mass destruction against U.S. forces in the Middle East has increased because Iraq has violated the Geneva Protocol of 1925 and the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention, attempted to acquire nuclear capability and delivery systems, and is reported to be developing biological weapons. The Army Medical Department has had no experience, since World War I, in the management and treatment of mass casualties contaminated by chemical agents, and has never treated casualties resulting from the use of nuclear or biological weapons used against our soldiers. Management and diagnosis of casualties will be complicated by their possible exposure to a mixture of chemical warfare and biological warfare agents. Triage is an essential aspect in the management of mass casualties since the number of injured patients will exceed the maximum medical capability to treat each patient on arrival. All levels of medical support must be prepared to protect themselves, their equipment and supplies, and their patients from contamination. In contaminated operations on the integrated battlefield, it will be of utmost importance to incorporate flexibility and innovation to match the medical and tactical situation.     

Which bio-weapons might be used by terrorists against the United Kingdom?

The properties of potential biological weapon agents for bioterrorism include a consistent effect at low dosage and short incubation period in a population of low immunity, being difficult to treat, able to be produced in bulk, stable in storage and readily disseminated. Possible agents include smallpox, haemorrhagic fever viruses, anthrax, tularaemia and plague. The example of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) demonstrates the possible consequences of an act of bioterrorism, but also the necessary global response. There is scepticism about the practicability of surveillance schemes and the global elimination of biological weapons though the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention remains urgent.     

Old dogs or new tricks: chemical warfare at the millennium

There were about 50,000 deaths from chemical agents in the First World War and 7,000 deaths in the Kurdish population of Iraq from mustard gas and nerve agents. Signatories to the 1925 Geneva Protocol forswore first use of chemical warfare, but were allowed to maintain stockpiles, and there were no sanctions against use. The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), which entered into force in 1997, establishes timetables for declaration of current and past CW activity and destruction of stocks. The Convention allows inspection of suspect sites. The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons has been established to give effect to the CWC, which, as of June 1999, has 125 States Parties. Progress in reporting and destroying CW agents is described. It is essential that participation in the CWC becomes universal, but until this is the case monitoring by other agencies will be needed.     

Biological weapons: An increasing threat

The background to the risk of biological warfare is examined with particular reference to recent developments in biotechnology and genetic engineering. The provisions of and problems with the Biological Weapons Convention are discussed, with particular reference to verification. The role of doctors and scientists in issues related to research on biological warfare are considered; they should do more to inform the general public and press for appropriate action.     

Abstracts of papers on updated radiation effects,immunological effects of nuclear war,medical effects and future dangers of nuclear‐weapon tests

Biological weapons (BW), although outlawed under the 1925 Geneva Convention, were studied in World War II, but were not used except on a small scale by the Japanese in Manchuria. The UN Disarmament Commission in 1959 failed to have BW eliminated because of the absence of agreed international verification. The Pugwash movement carried out trial inspections of microbiological establishments and concluded in 1966 that verification was possible. A WHO assessment in 1969 on chemical and biological weapons was that the effects on civilian populations could be very damaging, but that BW would not be militarily useful except for sabotage. The Biological Weapons Convention (1972) renounced biological warfare but permits relevant research for defence. Research on BW has recently been increased by the USA which claims that the USSR is using genetic engineering for this purpose. Research relevant to BW should not be carried out secretly nor under military auspices.     

芥子气损伤体内标志物及其检测技术的研究进展

芥子气被称为“毒剂之王”,除被用作化学武器外,近年来也成为恐怖活动的主要威胁手段之一。在应对芥子气引起的化学恐怖袭击和突发化学应急事件时,对其进行快速而准确可靠的侦检是一切救援行动的关键。对芥子气中毒人员体内诊断标志物分离检测技术的研究一直是军事分析化学家关注的热点问题。本文针对芥子气的中毒机制及体内代谢途径,综述了各类芥子气体内代谢标志物（如芥子气的水解产物、谷胱甘肽加合物、DNA加合物及蛋白加合物）的检测方法及最新进展。     

Online applied dual-use biosecurity education: a case study from the University of Bradford

Reflecting a consensus that emerged at the 2008 Meeting of States Parties of the Biological Weapons Convention on the importance of ensuring that those working in the biological sciences are aware of their obligations under the Convention and relevant national legislation and guidelines; and in regard to the consensus on the importance of awareness raising and education and training programmes, and of the role that these can play in assisting in the implementation of the Convention, this paper highlights how novel online e-learning approaches can efficiently and effectively be deployed in building a sustainable worldwide capability in this much neglected area of education and training. It provides examples of the development and evolution of education and training resources, notes the importance of standing agenda items for the intersessional process of the BWC between the Seventh and Eight Review Conferences and the range of opportunities that therefore arise for States Party and civil society collaboration in building capacity and achieving sustainability in this area.     

Polyethylene glycol in the design of tumor-targetting radiolabelled macromolecules -- lessons from liposomes and monoclonal antibodies.

Radiolabelled macromolecules such as liposomes and monoclonal antibodies (Mab) are attractive agents for tumour-targetting studies. In addition to their potential diagnostic role, they can also provide vital information on the targetting capacity of therapeutic agents. Certainly in the case of liposome development, this ability to track the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of the agents in a non-invasive fashion has assisted the design and application of therapeutic liposomal agents. A significant limitation of unmodified liposomes and Mab is their tendency to be cleared rapidly from the circulation. The use of polyethylene glycol (PEG) in the formulation of these agents has the capacity to alter their biological behaviour in such a way as to improve their ability to target tumours. In this paper we review the data relating to the use of PEG-modified liposomes and Mab in the context of nuclear medicine studies.     

Developments in medical oncology and their implications for interventional radiology

Although surgery and radiation therapy have always been spatially targeted, chemotherapy as administered by oncologists has remained steadfastly committed to non-targeted systemic delivery. Decades of pharmaceutical research have yielded agents appropriate for intravenous use, but countless potentially efficacious agents have been discarded because of pharmacokinetic and toxicity profiles unsuitable for systemic delivery. With the emerging technology of biological agents comes a new series of challenges. These agents tend to be larger, less long-lived, and antigenic when compared with the agents of the past. Meanwhile, interventional radiologists have shown that targeted methods of delivery can have substantial impact on the efficacy and toxicity of agents. Laboratory scientists have developed new bullets; we interventional radiologists have developed new guns. It is time we take advantage of potential synergies.     

PET tracers based on (86)Y

Positron emission tomography (PET) has become a powerful tool for probing biochemical processes in living subjects. PET imaging depends largely on the development of novel PET tracers labeled with positron-emitting radionuclides. Since the four traditional PET isotopes (18F, 11C, 13N, and 15O) are produced in a cyclotron and are short-lived, their use for long-term observation of biological processes in vivo is limited. In the last decades, extensive research in the development of other unconventional radionuclides (such as 64Cu, 68Ga, 89Zr, 86Y, and 124I) labeled tracers with half-lives complementary to the biological properties of their targeting agents has been conducted. Among these tracers, 86Y-based PET tracers have gained increasing attention since they are ideal surrogates for in vivo determination of biodistribution and dosimetry of therapeutic 90Y (pure β - emitter) pharmaceuticals. In this review article, we will brief introduce the physical characteristics, production, and radiochemistry of 86Y, and will summarize the current 86Y-based PET tracers used for molecular imaging and cancer detection in animal studies and in clinical trials.     

炭疽芽孢杆菌建立感染的过程及其机制

炭疽是一类烈性传染病,其病原体炭疽芽孢杆菌（简称炭疽菌）形成的芽孢是生物战剂和生物恐怖的原材料。免疫预防和特异性的治疗药物是应对这类生物威胁的重要手段。炭疽菌感染的机制研究,尤其是感染建立过程的研究能够为新型炭疽防治药物的研发提供新的思路。该文通过综述相关研究进展,介绍了炭疽菌的感染过程,描述了可能的感染机制,并结合炭疽防治药物的研究工作展开了讨论。     

当前国际生物安全形势与展望

生物安全是指全球化时代国家有效应对生物及生物技术因素的影响和威胁,维护和保障自身安全与利益的状态和能力.本文通过对《禁止生物武器公约》履约、生物恐怖、传染病以及生物技术谬用、转基因生物安全等的形势分析,认为总体上,国际生物安全形势趋于负面,我国生物安全形势趋于平稳,建议国家重视生物安全的可持续发展.     

Magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents: Overview and perspectives

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive clinical imaging modality, which has become widely used in the diagnosis and/or staging of human diseases around the world. Some MRI examinations include the use of contrast agents. The categorizations of currently available contrast agents have been described according to their effect on the image, magnetic behavior and biodistribution in the body, respectively. In this field, superparamagnetic iron oxide particles and soluble paramagnetic metal chelates are two main classes of contrast agents for MRI. This review outlines the research and development of MRI contrast agents. In future, the ideal MRI contrast agent will be focused on the neutral tissue- or organ-targeting materials with high relaxivity and specificity, low toxicity and side effects, suitable long intravascular duration and excretion time, high contrast enhancement with low dose in vivo, and with minimal cost.