Toll样受体4介导的抗病毒固有免疫研究进展

Toll样受体(TLR)是一类模式识别受体(PRR),人TLR分布在细胞表面或细胞内。不同TLR识别病原体的不同结构成分后,启动固有免疫反应。其中,TLR4在TLR家族中占有重要地位。它除了识别细菌的脂多糖(LPS)外,还可识别一些病毒的蛋白如水泡性口炎病毒的G糖蛋白、呼吸道合胞病毒的F蛋白。病毒包膜糖蛋白也是TLR4识别的配体。TLR4通过髓样分化因子88(My D88)和β干扰素TIR结构域衔接蛋白(TRIF)途径活化下游核因子κB(NF-κB)、干扰素调节因子3(IRF3)转录因子,产生细胞因子/趋化因子和1型干扰素等,在抗病毒免疫反应、免疫细胞分化及调节、发病机制、药物及疫苗研制等方面具有重要意义。     

Toll样受体与配体复合物结构的研究进展

Toll样受体(TLR)是一类模式识别受体,通过识别病原微生物的保守结构分子模式,触发先天免疫反应和基本的抗原特异适应性免疫。一些TLR结合配体复合物及胞内外结构域的晶体结构已经通过X射线晶体衍射分析确定。尽管配体结合位点各有不同,但是TLR家族胞外结构域均为马蹄状结构,其配体复合物的"m"外形也极度相似,C末端中心汇聚对胞内Toll/白细胞介素1受体(TIR)结构域紧靠一起非常重要,是启动下游信号的必需步骤。本文主要总结了TLR胞内外功能结构域及配体复合物的结构。     

Toll样受体在寄生虫感染过程中的作用

Toll样受体（TLR）是天然免疫系统识别病原微生物的主要受体,在天然免疫反应中具有重要的作用。TLR通过识别病原相关模式分子以激活抗感染的天然免疫应答和适应性免疫应答。TLR信号通路可通过诱导炎性因子的产生在适应性免疫应答中发挥重要作用。本文就TLR在寄生虫感染中发挥的作用作一综述。     

Toll样受体4(TLR4)信号通路及其靶向药物的研究进展

先天免疫系统利用模式识别受体(PPR)或其他分子受体识别入侵的细菌等病原微生物,通过触发炎症反应来阻止感染的传播,在抗菌防御中起着至关重要的作用.Toll样受体4(TLR4)是哺乳动物先天免疫系统的核心,在细菌内毒素介导的炎症中起关键作用.TLR4可以识别Gram阴性菌细胞壁上的脂多糖(LPS),从而激活TLR4信号通...     

TLR9与先天性免疫反应

TLR9(Toll-like receptor 9)是一种微生物病原相关分子结构模式识别受体,TLR9能够识别CpG-ODN(胞嘧啶磷酸鸟甘-寡聚脱氧核苷酸),使病原相关受体在先天性免疫细胞上表达,并激活下游炎性通路.研究表明,TLR9在先天性免疫反应中产生了重要作用,如脓毒血症、自身免疫性疾病、刀豆体球蛋白A介导肝炎性肝脏损伤、炎性泡沫细胞形成、缺血再灌注损伤等,并且与多种致病因子相关联,如肝X受体、甲酰多肽受体、线粒体DNA等.     

病毒相关Toll样受体研究进展

Toll样受体(Toll like receptors,TLR)是近来发现的固有性免疫系统中的细胞跨膜受体及病原模式识别受体之一,在对病毒的识别与免疫应答作用中起着重要的用。本文简要综述了病毒相关Toll样受体中TLR2、3、4、7、8、9的研究进展。     

TLR7介导抗病毒免疫应答研究进展

Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors,TLRs)是天然免疫中重要的模式识别受体,在机体抗病原体感染中发挥重要的作用,同时也是连接天然免疫与获得性免疫的桥梁。研究表明,Toll样受体7(TLR7)能识别某些小分子的抗病毒化合物和病毒单链RNA(single-stranded RNA,ssRNA),活化的TLR7启动髓系分化因子88(myeloid differentiation factor 88,MyD88)依赖的信号通路,介导抗病毒免疫应答。TLR7的活化需要内体/溶酶体的成熟,目前一些小分子的TLR7配体已用于临床治疗病毒性感染疾病和肿瘤。     

由不同接头分子介导的Toll样受体信号通路

Toll样受体(Toll-likereceptors,TLRs)是一类重要的模式识别受体(patternrecognitionreceptors,PRR)。Toll样受体信号通路既激活先天性免疫又对获得性免疫应答的启动发挥重要作用。一类包含TIR结构域的接头分子如MyD88、TIRAP、TRIF、TRAM可募集到不同Toll样受体的TLR胞质区,转导特异的信号通路。依据信号通路中接头分子的不同,Toll样受体信号通路一般分为MyD88依赖型信号通路和MyD88非依赖型/TRIF依赖型信号通路。     

Toll样受体相关因素对小鼠血细胞分化的促进与抑制作用

Toll样受体(TLR)是一种天然免疫受体,识别各自配体后,通过MyD88或不依赖MyD88途径,活化下游MAPK和NF-κB信号途径,从而激活树突状细胞(DC)成熟而导致DC释放细胞因子.     

TLR 识别在肿瘤化疗后免疫应答作用研究

Toll 样受体(TLRs)是一类高度保守的跨膜蛋白,在上皮细胞和免疫细胞上均有表达,是识别损伤相关分子模式(DAMPs)的重要受体。TLRs 和肿瘤化疗刺激肿瘤细胞产生的DAMP 结合之后通过MyD88 依赖和非依赖两条通路产生相应的生物效应。目前,临床上对于TLRs 识别DAMP 的研究应用主要集中在促进DAMP 的释放,同时增强TLR 的表达,以加强化疗药物的免疫效应等方面。     

TRAM is specifically involved in the Toll-like receptor 4-mediated MyD88-independent signaling pathway

Recognition of pathogens by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) triggers innate immune responses through signaling pathways mediated by Toll-interleukin 1 receptor (TIR) domain-containing adaptors such as MyD88, TIRAP and TRIF. MyD88 is a common adaptor that is essential for proinflammatory cytokine production, whereas TRIF mediates the MyD88-independent pathway from TLR3 and TLR4. Here we have identified a fourth TIR domain-containing adaptor, TRIF-related adaptor molecule (TRAM), and analyzed its physiological function by gene targeting. TRAM-deficient mice showed defects in cytokine production in response to the TLR4 ligand, but not to other TLR ligands. TLR4- but not TLR3-mediated MyD88-independent interferon-beta production and activation of signaling cascades were abolished in TRAM-deficient cells. Thus, TRAM provides specificity for the MyD88-independent component of TLR4 signaling.     

TLR signaling pathways

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been established to play an essential role in the activation of innate immunity by recognizing specific patterns of microbial components. TLR signaling pathways arise from intracytoplasmic TIR domains, which are conserved among all TLRs. Recent accumulating evidence has demonstrated that TIR domain-containing adaptors, such as MyD88, TIRAP, and TRIF, modulate TLR signaling pathways. MyD88 is essential for the induction of inflammatory cytokines triggered by all TLRs. TIRAP is specifically involved in the MyD88-dependent pathway via TLR2 and TLR4, whereas TRIF is implicated in the TLR3- and TLR4-mediated MyD88-independent pathway. Thus, TIR domain-containing adaptors provide specificity of TLR signaling.     

Identification of a TLR4- and TRIF-dependent activation program of dendritic cells

Dendritic cell activation by Toll-like receptors (TLR) is crucial for the generation of protective immune responses. In addition to the common myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88)-dependent signaling pathway, TLR4 engages the adaptor protein Toll/IL-1 receptor (TIR)-domain-containing adaptor inducing IFN-beta (TRIF), leading to interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) activation and type I interferon production. Using microarray expression profiling we now identify TRIF as a major regulator of the TLR4-triggered activation program of dendritic cells. We show that the expression of 47% of the genes that are responsive to TLR4 stimulation in wild-type dendritic cells is significantly altered in cells carrying a loss-of-function mutation of TRIF. Specifically, expression of IL-12, IL-18, and IL-23 was impaired in the absence of functional TRIF, suggesting that TLR4-promoted Th1 responses are TRIF-dependent. Furthermore, we provide evidence that TRIF regulates TLR4-mediated gene expression both by type I IFN-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Whereas dendritic cell production of CXCL10 and CCL12 was dependent on both TRIF and the type I interferon receptor, expression of IL-6 required TRIF but not type I interferon activity. Functional TRIF was also required for the normal induction of numerous genes considered important for host defense against diverse pathogens.Together, these data therefore identify TRIF as a crucial regulator of TLR4-dependent dendritic cell responses.     

TIR domain-containing adaptors define the specificity of TLR signaling

The concept that Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize specific molecular patterns in various pathogens has been established. In signal transduction via TLRs, MyD88, which harbors a Toll/IL-1 receptor (TIR)-domain and a death domain, has been shown to link between TLRs and MyD88-dependent downstream events leading to proinflammatory cytokine production and splenocyte proliferation. However, recent studies using MyD88-deficient mice have revealed that some TLRs possess a MyD88-independent pathway, which is represented by interferon (IFN)-beta production induced by LPS stimulation. This indicates that additional signaling molecules other than MyD88 exist in the TLR signaling pathway. Indeed, two additional TIR domain-containing adaptors, TIRAP/Mal and TRIF, have recently been identified. Both define the specific biological responses of each TLR.     

Molecular cloning and characterization of Toll-like receptor 9 in Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus

Toll-like receptor (TLR) 9 cDNA and gene were cloned from Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus. The Japanese flounder TLR9 cDNA encodes 1065 amino acids. The leucine-rich domain (LRD) and the Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain found in other vertebrate TLR9s were conserved in Japanese flounder TLR9. The gene is composed of three exons and two introns. The Japanese flounder tumor necrosis factor (TNF) gene promoter was activated in Japanese flounder TLR9-transformed hirame natural embryo (HINAE) cells upon stimulation with synthesized CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN), but not by stimulation with GpC ODN. The Japanese flounder TLR9 gene was highly expressed in epithelial and lymphoid organs, such as the gills, intestines, kidney, spleen and stomach in an apparently healthy fish. The mRNA copy numbers of Japanese flounder TLR9 and its adapter protein, the myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MYD88) were increased in some organs including blood, gill, kidney and spleen after Edwardsiella tarda challenge. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that TLR9 and MYD88 were expressed in the same cells of kidney. Few TLR9-expressing cells were found in gill, kidney and spleen in healthy Japanese flounder, but many were found in these organs after E. tarda challenge and were coincident with lesions that had been colonized by the bacteria.     

The human adaptor SARM negatively regulates adaptor protein TRIF-dependent Toll-like receptor signaling

Toll-like receptors discriminate between different pathogen-associated molecules and activate signaling cascades that lead to immune responses. The specificity of Toll-like receptor signaling occurs by means of adaptor proteins containing Toll-interleukin 1 receptor (TIR) domains. Activating functions have been assigned to four TIR adaptors: MyD88, Mal, TRIF and TRAM. Here we characterize a fifth TIR adaptor, SARM, as a negative regulator of TRIF-dependent Toll-like receptor signaling. Expression of SARM blocked gene induction 'downstream' of TRIF but not of MyD88. SARM associated with TRIF, and 'knockdown' of endogenous SARM expression by interfering RNA led to enhanced TRIF-dependent cytokine and chemokine induction. Thus, the fifth mammalian TIR adaptor SARM is a negative regulator of Toll-like receptor signaling.     

The Toll-IL-1 receptor adaptor family grows to five members

Toll-like receptor (TLR) signal transduction is mediated by an adaptor protein termed MyD88. In the case of TLR2 and TLR4, another adaptor related to MyD88 called Mal also participates in signalling. Two recent papers have added a third adaptor to the family, called Toll-interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain-containing adaptor inducing interferon-beta (IFN-beta) (TRIF) or TIR-containing adaptor molecule-1 (TICAM-1), which is particularly important for IFN regulatory factor-3 (IRF-3) activation by antiviral TLR3. Two additional adaptors are present in humans, termed Trif-related adaptor molecule (TRAM) and sterile alpha and HEAT-Armadillo motifs (SARM). It is probable that differential use of adaptors will help explain the distinct pathways activated by TLRs during host defence.     

TNF receptor-associated factor-1 (TRAF1) negatively regulates Toll/IL-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor inducing IFN-beta (TRIF)-mediated signaling

Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) plays an important role in antiviral responses through recognizing viral double-stranded RNA produced during viral infection and mediating induction of type I IFN. TRIF is a Toll/IL-1 receptor (TIR) domain-containing adaptor protein that is associated with TLR3 and critically involved in TLR3-mediated signaling. In yeast two-hybrid screens, we identified TNF receptor-associated factor (TRAF)1 as a TRIF-interacting protein. The TRAF-C domain of TRAF1 and the TIR domain of TRIF were responsible for their interaction. Overexpression of TRAF1 inhibited TRIF- and TLR3-mediated activation of NF-kappaB, IFN-stimulated response element and the IFN-beta promoter. Overexpression of TRIF caused caspase-dependent cleavage of TRAF1. The cleaved N-terminal but not C-terminal fragment of TRAF1 was responsible for inhibiting TRIF signaling. Mutation of the caspase cleavage site of TRAF1 or addition of the caspase inhibitor crmA inhibited TRAF1 cleavage and abolished the ability of TRAF1 to inhibit TRIF signaling, suggesting that TRIF-induced cleavage of TRAF1 is required for its inhibition of TRIF signaling. Our findings provide a novel mechanism for negative regulation of TRIF-mediated signaling.     

The TLR4–TRIF pathway can protect against the development of experimental allergic asthma

The Toll‐like receptor (TLR) adaptor proteins myeloid differentiating factor 88 (MyD88) and Toll, interleukin‐1 receptor and resistance protein (TIR) domain‐containing adaptor inducing interferon‐β (TRIF) comprise the two principal limbs of the TLR signalling network. We studied the role of these adaptors in the TLR4‐dependent inhibition of allergic airway disease and induction of CD4⁺ ICOS⁺ T cells by nasal application of Protollin™, a mucosal adjuvant composed of TLR2 and TLR4 agonists. Wild‐type (WT), Trif^−/− or Myd88^−/− mice were sensitized to birch pollen extract (BPEx), then received intranasal Protollin followed by consecutive BPEx challenges. Protollin's protection against allergic airway disease was TRIF‐dependent and MyD88‐independent. TRIF deficiency diminished the CD4⁺ ICOS⁺ T‐cell subsets in the lymph nodes draining the nasal mucosa, as well as their recruitment to the lungs. Overall, TRIF deficiency reduced the proportion of cervical lymph node and lung CD4⁺ ICOS⁺ Foxp3⁻ cells, in particular. Adoptive transfer of cervical lymph node cells supported a role for Protollin‐induced CD4⁺ ICOS⁺ cells in the TRIF‐dependent inhibition of airway hyper‐responsiveness. Hence, our data demonstrate that stimulation of the TLR4‐TRIF pathway can protect against the development of allergic airway disease and that a TRIF‐dependent adjuvant effect on CD4⁺ ICOS⁺ T‐cell responses may be a contributing mechanism.