HIV risk-taking behaviour among injecting drug users currently, previously and never enrolled in methadone treatment

This study compares the injecting and sexual risk-taking behaviour among injecting drug users (IDUs) currently, previously and never enrolled in methadone maintenance treatment (MMT). All subjects had injected during the 6 months prior to the day of interview. The current MMT group showed significantly lower injecting risk-taking behaviour subscale scores on the HIV Risk-taking Behaviour Scale (HRBS) of the Opiate Treatment Index than the previous MMT and non-MMT groups together. The current MMT group differed from the other two groups in the frequency of injecting and cleaning of injection equipment with bleach. There was no difference between the current MMT group and the other two groups combined in sexual risk-taking behaviour scores on the HRBS. There were no differences between the previous MMT and non-MMT groups in injecting and sexual risk-taking behaviour. HIV seroprevalence was low and there was no difference in seroprevalence between groups. Thus, IDUs currently enrolled in MMT are at reduced risk for HIV infection when compared with IDUs who have previously or never been enrolled in MMT. However, the absence of a difference between the current MMT and other two groups in frequency of sharing behaviours suggests the need for additional strategies among MMT clients to reduce needle-sharing. Possible strategies include the application of relapse prevention interventions and the availability of sterile injecting equipment in MMT clinics. Further research is needed to identify factors which increase attraction and retention of IDUs to MMT.     

Longitudinal changes in sexual risk behavior among HIV+ and HIV- male injecting drug users.

Injecting drug users (IDUs) play a prominent role in the transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), particularly in urban areas such as New York City, where they comprise nearly half of all adult acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) cases. Intervention studies have demonstrated that IDUs are responsive to safer sex messages, but sexual behavior appears to be more resistant to change than drug use behavior. This multidisciplinary study (without an intervention component) assesses changes in sexual risk behavior as a function of time, HIV status, and disease progression in a cohort of HIV+ and HIV- male IDUs (N = 144) for 4 years. RESULTS: For HIV+ and HIV- men, there were increases in abstinence and monogamy, with decreases in the frequency of unprotected vaginal/anal sex and sexual risk index scores. With the exception of monogamy, HIV+ men reported lower levels of risk. Although there was also a decline in substance use, this accounted for only some of the decline in sexual risk behavior. Among the HIV+ men, a CD4 level below 200 was associated with more abstinence and monogamy. HIV-related medical symptoms were associated with increased abstinence, less unprotected sex, and lower sexual risk index scores. Lower neuropsychological memory test scores were associated with increased abstinence and lower sexual risk index scores. Neurological impairment and depression were not associated with sexual risk behavior. CONCLUSION: IDU men in New York City have modified their sexual behavior toward safer practices. Lower levels of risk are found among HIV+ men, particularly those with more progressed HIV illness. Nevertheless, a substantial amount of sexual risk behavior remained in this cohort, indicating the continued need for education and intervention.     

HIV risk behaviour correlates among injecting drug users in Greek prisons

Aims. To identify the correlates of injecting drug use within prison. Design. A national cross-sectional study, participation being voluntary and anonymous. Setting. Ten Greek prisons. Participants. A representative sample of 1000 male inmates; 861 questionnaires were completed and analysed. Measurement. A self-report questionnaire for demographics, penal history, drug use and sharing injecting equipment. Findings. Two hundred and ninety inmates (33.7%) reported injecting drugs at some time in their lives, of whom 174 (60%) had injected while imprisoned. Among those who had injected while imprisoned, 145 (83%) had shared equipment while incarcerated. Logistic regression analysis suggested that total time in prison, previous drug conviction, being a convict (as opposed to on remand) and having multiple female sexual partners 1 year before incarceration were significant HIV risk behaviour correlates. For every year of imprisonment, the risk of injection in prison increased by about 17% \[OR = 1.17 (95% CI: 1.07-1.27)]. Inmates with a previous drug-related conviction were about twice as likely to inject within prison \[OR = 1.97 (95% CI: 1.16-3.33)]. Finally, convicted inmates were marginally significantly more prone to inject in prison \[OR = 1.58 (95% CI: 0.92-2.74)]. Conclusions. Variables related to the inmates' prison career influence HIV risk behaviours within prison. There is a need to assist IDUs in reducing the likelihood of high-risk behaviour by considering factors such as frequency of incarceration, length of time incarcerated and availability of detoxification programmes within prison.     

HIV risk among women injecting drug users who are in jail

Female offender populations and females in jail include large proportions of injecting drug users (IDUs), who are at high risk of contracting or transmitting HIV. Women IDUs (n = 165) were recruited and interviewed at New York City's central jail facility for women. The study examined these women's patterns of HIV risk behaviors related to drugs and sex and identified behavioral and attitudinal correlates of HIV serostatus. The women typically used both injectable and non-injectable drugs prior to arrest, primarily heroin, cocaine powder, crack, and illicit methadone. Self-reported HIV seropositivity was 43%. Variables correlated with HIV serostatus in the bivariate analysis were: cocaine injection frequency; lifetime injection risk behavior; providing oral sex during male crack use; Hispanic ethnicity; sharing of needles/syringes; sharing of cookers; sharing injection equipment with friends; heroin smoking (negative); injection risk acceptance; peer norms and behavior; lifetime sexual risk behavior; frequency of sex with men; provision of sex for money or drugs; and knowing people with AIDS. The first four variables listed retained statistical significance in a multiple logistic regression analysis. The paper considers the need to tailor AIDS prevention interventions for woman IDUs in jail, including taking into account risk behaviors that occur within frequently reported same-sex partnerships.     

Global overview of injecting drug use and HIV infection among injecting drug users

OBJECTIVE: To provide global estimates of the prevalence of injecting drug use (IDU) and HIV prevalence among IDU, in particular to provide estimates for developing and transitional countries. METHODS: Collation and review of existing estimates of IDU prevalence and HIV prevalence from published and unpublished documents for the period 1998-2003. The strength of evidence for the information was assessed based on the source and type of study. RESULTS: Estimates of IDU prevalence were available for 130 countries. The number of IDU worldwide was estimated as approximately 13.2 million. Over ten million (78%) live in developing and transitional countries (Eastern Europe and Central Asia, 3.1 million; South and South-east Asia, 3.3 million; East-Asia and Pacific, 2.3 million). Estimates of HIV prevalence were available for 78 countries. HIV prevalence among IDU of over 20% was reported for at least one site in 25 countries and territories: Belarus, Estonia, Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Serbia and Montenegro, Spain, Libya, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, Viet Nam, China, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Puerto Rico, USA and Canada. CONCLUSIONS: These findings update previous assessments of the number of countries with IDU and HIV-infected IDU, and the previous quantitative global estimates of the prevalence of IDU. However, gaps remain in the information and the strength of the evidence often was weak.     

Economic evaluation of methadone maintenance treatment in HIV/AIDS control among injecting drug users in Dehong, China

The purpose of this study was to analyze the cost and cost-effectiveness of methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) program in Dehong prefecture, Yunnan province, China. The cost-effectiveness analysis used process data retrospectively collected from the MMT clinics in Dehong Prefecture, Yunnan Province, from July 2005 to December 2007, a 30-month period available at the time of the study. Alternative estimates of the number of HIV infections prevented were calculated using incidence rate from cohort studies and retrospective studies. Program costs were collected retrospectively following standard methods using an ingredients methodology. The cost for each participant treated in MMT clinics was about $9.1-16.7 per month and the intervention averted 8.4-87.2 HIV infections with a cost-effectiveness of US$ 2509.3-4609.3 per HIV infection averted. This research demonstrates that MMT is a cost-effective intervention for reducing HIV transmission among injecting drug users, but the coverage of MMT intervention should be matched with the designed volume of MMT clinics to make the best use of resources.     

International epidemiology of HIV and AIDS among injecting drug users.

HIV/AIDS and iv drug use (IVDU) are of significant multinational scope and growing. Supporting increased IVDU in many countries are countries' geographical proximity to illicit drug trafficking distribution routes, law enforcement efforts which increase the demand for more efficient drug distribution and consumption, and countries' infrastructural and social modernization. Given the failures of intensified law enforcement efforts to thwart the use and proliferation of illegal drugs, countries with substantial IVDU should look away from preventing use to preventing HIV transmission within drug user populations. With HIV seroprevalence rates rapidly reaching 40-50% in some developing country IVDU groups, a variety of prevention programs is warranted. Such programs should be supported and implemented while prevention remains feasible. This paper examines the variation in HIV seroprevalence among IVD users, rapid HIV spread among users, HIV among IVDUs in Bangkok, emerging issues in HIV transmission among IVDUs, non-AIDS manifestations of HIV infection among IVDUs, prevention programs and effectiveness, and harm reduction.     

HIV seropositivity in community-recruited and drug treatment samples of injecting drug users.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the representativeness of drug use treatment samples for measuring HIV seroprevalence among injecting drug users (IDU) in community settings. DESIGN: Seroprevalence was determined in two cross-sectional, convenience samples including an unlinked survey of IDU entrants to all publicly-funded drug-treatment programs and a survey of community-recruited IDU. METHODS: Unconditional logistic regression [odds ratio (OR)] was used to calculate unadjusted and adjusted OR to measure the association between HIV seropositivity and site of recruitment. RESULTS: Between 1988 and 1989, 25% of 870 community-recruited IDU were seropositive, compared with 13% of 671 entrants to drug-treatment programs. This twofold risk of HIV seropositivity among community-recruited IDU remained after adjustment for sample differences in gender, race-ethnicity, and age group (adjusted OR, 2.09; 95% confidence interval, 1.58-2.78). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest the importance of extending HIV surveillance outside of drug-treatment facilities. Active serologic surveillance may be feasible by coupling recent saliva and fingerstick sampling techniques with existing community outreach education efforts.     

我国社区美沙酮维持治疗吸毒人员HIV新发感染研究

目的分析我国参加社区美沙酮维持治疗吸毒人员艾滋病病毒(HIV)新发感染情况,探讨与感染相关的因素。方法建立2004年3月-2010年12月期间参加治疗的吸毒成瘾人员队列,对参加治疗时HIV抗体阴性者每6个月进行HIV随访检测,计算HIV新发感染率,采用单因素分析和Cox比例风险回归模型,对与新发感染有关的因素进行预测分析。结果累计随访检测治疗人员101 821人,发现596例新发感染,HIV新发感染率0.35/100人年(95%CI:0.32～0.38/100人年)。少数民族治疗人员新发感染率较高(最高3.21/100人年),文化程度低者新发感染率较高(小学及以下0.58/100人年)。不同地区新发感染率不同,最高省份为1.83/100人年。62.1%的感染发生在治疗最初的1年中。Cox比例风险回归显示,女性(HR=1.290,95%CI:1.058～1.574,P=0.012)、少数民族(HR=2.861,95%CI:2.363～3.463,P<0.000 1)、小学及以下文化程度(HR=1.765,95%CI:1.465～2.12 7,P<0.000 1)、注射吸毒(HR=3.302,95%CI:2.504～4.354,P<0.000 1)、共用注射器(HR=1.943,95%CI:1.622～2.326,P<0.000 1)会增加治疗期间HIV感染的风险,参加治疗时年龄较大者感染风险较低(每增加1岁HR=0.980,95%CI:0.968～0.992)。结论我国参加MMT吸毒人员HIV新发感染率的民族和地区差异大,主要发生在参加治疗的前几个月,女性、少数民族、低文化程度、曾注射吸毒和共用注射器会增加治疗期间HIV感染的风险,参加治疗时年龄较大者感染风险较小。具有这些特征的吸毒人员在入组治疗时,要给予特别关注,并开展针对性的干预。     

Risk factors and HIV seropositivity among injecting drug users in Bangkok.

Bangkok experienced an extremely rapid spread of HIV infection among drug injectors in 1987 and 1988. This study examines risk factors for HIV infection and deliberate risk-reduction efforts by drug injectors. Two subsamples of injecting drug users were recruited in November 1989, a group in drug-use treatment (n = 342) and a group new to the treatment system (n = 259). Subjects were interviewed about AIDS risk behavior, and a blood sample was collected for HIV testing. Seroprevalence was 39 and 27% in the in-treatment sample and the new-to-treatment sample, respectively. The in-treatment sample seroprevalence rate is similar to rates observed 6 and 12 months earlier. Three factors were independently associated with HIV infection: subsample, having been in prison, and sharing injection equipment with two or more individuals in the previous 6 months. Deliberate risk reduction was reported by 92% of individuals, with 59% reporting that they had stopped sharing injection equipment. It appears that large-scale risk reduction has greatly slowed HIV transmission among drug injectors in Bangkok.     

Incidence and risk factors for hepatitis C seroconversion in injecting drug users in Australia

AIMS: To determine the incidence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and identify risk factors for seroconversion. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. Participants were recruited through direct approaches, street-based outreach, methadone and sexual health clinics and needle and syringe programmes. SETTING: Urban, regional and rural settings in New South Wales, Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Injecting drug users (IDUs) (n = 584) were screened and tested for exposure to HCV. Between 1999 and 2002 antibody HCV negative IDUs (n = 368) were enrolled and followed-up every 3-6 months until seroconversion or study completion. MEASUREMENTS: Interviewer-administered baseline and follow-up questionnaires consisted of 131 items and included demographics, drug use and risk behaviour. Approximately 10 cc of whole blood was drawn at each visit. Specimens were stored at -70C and serology performed using one or two third-generation enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and polymerase chain reaction testing. FINDINGS: Sixty-eight seroconversions were observed and incidence was 30.8 per 100 person-years, with incidence in IDUs injecting < 1 year, 133 per 100 person-years. Independent predictors of seroconversion were female gender, duration of injecting, injecting cocaine, shared use of filters and recruitment strategy. CONCLUSIONS: Women, new initiates and IDUs recruited via outreach appear to be at increased risk of infection. Results confirm the significance of cocaine injection as a risk factor and provide the first evidence outside North America of the link between shared use of drug preparation equipment and incident HCV infection. Prevention efforts should attempt to raise awareness of the risks associated with drug sharing and, in particular, the role of potentially contaminated syringes in HCV infection.     

Differentiated risk behaviour for HIV and hepatitis among injecting drug users (IDUs)

Needle sharing is a risk factor for contracting blood-borne infections among injecting drug users (IDUs). We explored the relation of socio-financial, physical and mental health factors (ASI) to risk behaviour (Qr23) for contracting blood-borne infections among IDUs (Addiction Severity Index and Questionnaire for risk behaviour). 42 HIV negative IDUs were studied prospectively. The median age was 42.5 (range 18-61) y, 28 of 42 (67%) were males and median duration of injecting was 19.0 (range 0-43) y. HCV and HBV antibodies were found in 37 (88%) and 31 (71%) participants, respectively. Poly drug use was reported by 23 (55%) participants; amphetamine by 10 (24%) and heroin by 9 (21%). From the ASI data we were unable to find any statistically significant factor that was associated with needle sharing (n = 26/42, 61%) or sharing drug mixture/filter (n = 25/42, 59%). 19 (73%) of 26 participants who shared needles also shared drug mixture/filter. Of these 26 IDUs, 7 shared needles with partners, 11 with acquaintances, 3 with strangers and 5 with all categories. In conclusion, the study group showed differentiated risk behaviours for blood-borne infections with regard to various persons and to whom they were exposed. This suggests that IDUs may benefit from individualized counselling regarding risks for infections with HIV, HCV and HBV.     

HIV prevalence and risk behaviour among female injecting drug users in London, 1990 to 1996.

OBJECTIVE: To describe trends in HIV prevalence among female injecting drug users (IDU) in London between 1990 and 1996. DESIGN: HIV prevalence and risk behaviour were measured yearly between 1990 and 1993, and in 1996, in point prevalence HIV surveys of IDU recruited from both drug-treatment and community-based settings within Greater London. Sample sizes were 173 in 1990, 111 in 1991, 128 in 1992, 146 in 1993 and 200 in 1996. METHODS: Each survey used structured questionnaires and common sampling and interview strategies. Oral fluid specimens were collected for testing for antibodies to HIV (anti-HIV). Multiple logistic regression was used to assess the trend in HIV prevalence. RESULTS: The percentage of female IDU testing positive for antibodies to HIV showed a marked decline over the study period, from 15.0% in 1990 to 1.0% in 1996 (P < 0.001). This trend was independent of all other variables examined. Each year, higher HIV prevalences were found among IDU recruited from community settings compared with treatment agencies. CONCLUSIONS: These results concur with those of IDU recruited from treatment sites, although the yearly estimates in this study are higher. London benefits from low prevalence of HIV infection among IDU, coupled with behaviour change facilitated by early intervention. Continued surveillance of injectors recruited from both community and treatment settings is necessary in order properly to assess HIV prevalence among IDU.     

Self-reports of HIV risk behavior by injecting drug users: are they reliable"

While most studies of AIDS risk behavior rely on self-reports, few studies have assessed the reliability of these reports. The present study examines self-reports of drug-related and sexual risk behavior among pairs of injecting drug users (IDUs) recruited from the streets in New York City. Since both members of the pair were interviewed, it was possible to compare their responses in order to assess reliability. Subjects reported on their contacts' demographic data (age, gender, race/ethnicity) and on shared risk behaviors, including syringe sharing. Despite the private and/or illegal nature of AIDS risk behaviors, IDU subjects were generally reliable in their reports of both demographic and AIDS risk behaviors.     

HIV risk behavior among injection drug users in Tehran, Iran

AIMS: Iran faces parallel human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and injection drug use epidemics; more than 62% of known HIV cases occur among injection drug users (IDU). We conducted a formative study of IDU in Tehran to explore risk behavior in the wake of the recent harm reduction efforts. PARTICIPANTS AND DESIGN: Key informant interviews (n = 40), focus group discussions (nine groups of IDU, n = 66) and a review of existing published and unpublished literature were conducted. Participants included IDU, physicians, policy makers, police, IDU advocates and their families. IDU were diverse in gender, education, income and neighborhood of residence. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed using grounded theory. A typology of IDUs in Tehran, categorized according to self-defined networks as well as HIV risks, is presented. This categorization is based on the groups identified by IDUs, compared to those identified by other key informants, and on a secondary data review. FINDINGS: Homeless, female, young IDU and users of a more potent form of heroin were identified as having increased risks for HIV. Participants described shortening transitions from smoked opium to injected opiates. Whereas a majority of participants considered needle sharing less common than previously, sharing continues in locations of group injection, and in states of withdrawal or severe addiction. System-wise barriers to harm reduction were discussed, and include the cost or stigma of purchasing needles from pharmacies, over-burdened clinics, irregular enforcement of laws protecting IDU and lack of efforts to address the sexual risks of IDU. CONCLUSIONS: This research is one of the first to describe a diversity of IDU, including women and higher socio-economic class individuals, in Tehran. While efforts in harm reduction in Iran to date have been notable, ongoing risks point to an urgent need for targeted, culturally acceptable interventions.     

Population-based study of malignancies and HIV infection among injecting drug users in a New York City methadone treatment program, 1985-1991.

OBJECTIVE: To study the incidence of AIDS-defining and non-AIDS-defining malignancies in injecting drug users with and without HIV infection in a methadone maintenance treatment program (MMTP). DESIGN: Prospective study within a hospital-affiliated MMTP with on-site primary medical services. The MMTP has been the site of a voluntary longitudinal cohort study of HIV infection since 1985. METHODS: Active surveillance for all new cancer cases occurring among patients in the MMTP between July 1985 and August 1991. Cancer cases were identified by review of clinic and hospital records, hospital-based tumor registries, and New York City vital records. Cancer incidence was determined for the overall MMTP population and for HIV-seropositive and HIV-seronegative cohort study subgroups. RESULTS: During the study period the MMTP population comprised 2174 patients followed for 5491 person-years; 844 patients (380 HIV-seropositive, 464 HIV-seronegative) also participated in the cohort study. Fifteen non-AIDS-defining malignancies occurred among all MMTP patients (2.73 cases per 1000 person-years); the most frequent sites were lung, larynx, and cervix (n = 6, 2 and 2, respectively). Eighty per cent of patients with these cancer diagnoses and known HIV serologic status were seropositive. Within the cohort study group, six out of 380 HIV-seropositives developed non-AIDS-defining cancers versus one out of 464 HIV-seronegatives (P = 0.05, Fisher's exact test). Lung cancer cases in HIV-seropositive patients tended to occur at an earlier age and was more aggressive than in patients with HIV-seronegative or unknown status. During the same period, two cases of AIDS-defining lymphoma and one case of Kaposi's sarcoma were diagnosed in the MMTP population (0.5 cases per 1000 person-years). CONCLUSION: Solid neoplasms, while infrequent, were associated with HIV infection and were more common than AIDS-defining cancers in this population of drug injectors. Further study is needed to explore the relationship between HIV, behavioral factors, and cancer risk in injecting drug users.     

Injecting equipment sharing and perception of HIV and hepatitis risk among injecting drug users in Budapest

In central European states, rates of HIV among injection drug users (IDUs) have been low although Hepatitis C (HCV) infection is widespread. The goal of our study was to assess HIV infection, risk perceptions and injecting equipment sharing among IDUs in Budapest, Hungary. Altogether 150 IDUs were interviewed (121 structured interviews between 1999 and 2000 and 29 ethnographic interviews between 2003 and 2004). The majority of them injected heroin (52% and 79%) and many injected amphetamines (51% and 35%). One person tested positive for HIV. Two thirds (68%) shared injecting equipment (syringes, cookers and filters). Some participants said they shared syringes because they were not carrying them for fear of police harassment and that they reused filters as a backup drug supply. In multivariate analysis, sharing of injecting equipment was associated with higher perceived susceptibility to HIV/AIDS, lower self-efficacy for sterile equipment use, higher motivation to comply with peer pressure to use dirty injecting equipment and with having a criminal record. The high levels of injecting risk-behaviors found in this study are a cause for serious concern. Interventions for HIV-prevention need to address not only sharing syringes but also sharing and reusing of other injecting equipment and drug filters.