Cerebral white matter damage in the preterm infant: pathophysiology and risk factors

Based on clinical, epidemiologic, and experimental studies, the aetiology of white matter damage, specifically periventricular leukomalacia (PVL), is multifactorial and involves pre- and perinatal factors possibly including genetic factors, hypoxic-ischaemic insults, infection, excess cytokines, free radical production, increased excitatory amino acid release, and trophic factor deficiencies. The article summarizes research findings about the aetiology of white matter damage and cerebral palsy in preterm infants. The information is organized according to specific antecedents, for which we present epidemiological and neurobiological data. The most important prenatal factor appears to be intrauterine infection. We discuss the evidence supporting the hypothesis that the foetal inflammatory response contributes to neonatal brain injury and later developmental disability. We recently established an animal model of excitotoxic lesions in the developing mouse brain. Brain damage was induced by intra-cortical injections of ibotenate, a glutamatergic agonist. When administered on post-natal day 5 ibotenate induced the formation of white matter cysts. Our animal model could be used to further explore the mechanisms involved in the formation of PVL. Potentially preventive strategies will be discussed.     

Periventricular leukomalacia: overview and recent findings.

Periventricular leukomalacia (PVL), the main substrate for cerebral palsy, is characterized by diffuse injury of deep cerebral white matter, accompanied in its most severe form by focal necrosis. The classic neuropathology of PVL has given rise to several hypotheses about the pathogenesis, largely relating to hypoxia-ischemia and reperfusion in the sick premature infant. These include free radical injury, cytokine toxicity (especially given the epidemiologic association of PVL with maternofetal infection), and excitotoxicity. Among the recent findings directly in human postmortem tissue is that immunocytochemical markers of lipid peroxidation (hydroxy-nonenal and malondialdehyde) and protein nitration (nitrotyrosine) are significantly increased in PVL. Premyelinating oligodendrocytes, which predominate in periventricular regions during the window of vulnerability to PVL (24 to 34 postconceptional weeks), are the targets of this free radical injury, and suffer cell death. Susceptibility can be attributed, at least in part, to a relative deficiency of superoxide dismutases in the preterm white matter, including premyelinating oligodendrocytes. Several cytokines, including interferon-gamma (known to be directly toxic to immature oligodendroglia in vitro), as well as tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukins 2 and 6, have been demonstrated in PVL. Microglia, which express toll-like receptors to bacterial products such as lipopolysaccharide, are increased in PVL white matter and may contribute to the injury. Preliminary work suggests a role for glutamate receptors and glutamate transporters in PVL, as has been seen in experimental animals. These findings pave the way for eventual therapeutic or preventive strategies for PVL.     

Early detection of periventricular leukomalacia by diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging techniques

Periventricular leukomalacia (PVL), the principal form of brain injury in the premature infant, is characterized by overt focal necrotic lesions in periventricular white matter and less prominent, more diffuse cerebral white matter injury. The early detection of the latter, diffuse component of PVL is not consistently possible with conventional brain imaging techniques. We demonstrate the early detection of the diffuse component of PVL by diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DWI). In a premature infant with no definite cerebral abnormality detectable by cranial ultrasonography or conventional magnetic resonance imaging, DWI showed a striking bilateral decrease in water diffusion in cerebral white matter. The DWI abnormality (ie, decreased apparent diffusion coefficient) was similar to that observed with acute cerebral ischemic lesions in adults. At 10 weeks of age, conventional magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasonography showed striking changes consistent with PVL, including the presence of small cysts. The observations indicate the importance of DWI in the early identification of the diffuse component of PVL and also perhaps the role of ischemia in the pathogenesis of the lesion.     

Caffeine does not affect excitotoxic brain lesions in newborn mice.

Caffeine is frequently administered to human pre-term newborns although its neurological impact has not been fully evaluated. In the present study performed in mice, we examined the effects of caffeine administration on neonatal excitotoxic lesions of the periventricular white matter, which mimics several aspects of human periventricular leukomalacia. In this model, caffeine exposure did not worsen white matter lesions. These data suggest that neonatal caffeine administration might not affect clastic lesions in pre-term infants.     

Neurobiology of periventricular leukomalacia in the premature infant

Brain injury in the premature infant is a problem of enormous importance. Periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) is the major neuropathologic form of this brain injury and underlies most of the neurologic morbidity encountered in survivors of premature birth. Prevention of PVL now seems ultimately achievable because of recent neurobiologic insights into pathogenesis. The pathogenesis of this lesion relates to three major interacting factors. The first two of these, an incomplete state of development of the vascular supply to the cerebral white matter, and a maturation-dependent impairment in regulation of cerebral blood flow underlie a propensity for ischemic injury to cerebral white matter. The third major pathogenetic factor is the maturation-dependent vulnerability of the oligodendroglial (OL) precursor cell that represents the major cellular target in PVL. Recent neurobiologic studies show that these cells are exquisitely vulnerable to attack by free radicals, known to be generated in abundance with ischemia-reperfusion. This vulnerability of OLs is maturation-dependent, with the OL precursor cell highly vulnerable and the mature OL resistant, and appears to relate to a developmental window characterized by a combination of deficient antioxidant defenses and active acquisition of iron during OL differentiation. The result is generation of deadly reactive oxygen species and apoptotic OL death. Important contributory factors in pathogenesis interact with this central theme of vulnerability to free radical attack. Thus, the increased likelihood of PVL in the presence of intraventricular hemorrhage could relate to increases in local iron concentrations derived from the hemorrhage. The important contributory role of maternal/fetal infection or inflammation and cytokines in the pathogenesis of PVL could be related to effects on the cerebral vasculature and cerebral hemodynamics, to generation of reactive oxygen species, or to direct toxic effects on vulnerable OL precursors. A key role for elevations in extracellular glutamate, caused by ischemia-reperfusion, is suggested by demonstrations that glutamate causes toxicity to OL precursors by both nonreceptor- and receptor-mediated mechanisms. The former involves an exacerbation of the impairment in antioxidant defenses, and the latter, an alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid/kainate receptor-mediated cell death. Most importantly, these new insights into the pathogenesis of PVL suggest potential preventive interventions. These include avoidance of cerebral ischemia by detection of infants with impaired cerebrovascular autoregulation, e.g. through the use of in vivo near-infrared spectroscopy, the use of free radical scavengers to prevent toxicity by reactive oxygen species, the administration of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid/kainate receptor antagonists to prevent glutamate-mediated injury, or the use of maternal antibiotics or anticytokine agents to prevent toxicity from maternal/fetal infection or inflammation and cytokines.     

谷氨酸受体2和钙离子在新生大鼠脑室周围白质软化症发病机制中的作用探讨

目的：观察α-氨基-3-羟基-5-甲基-4-异恶唑丙酸（α-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionie acid，AMPA）受体亚单位谷氨酸受体2（GluR2）在2日龄缺氧缺血新生鼠脑白质中的表达，并检测脑白质细胞内游离Ca2+浓度在缺氧缺血后不同时间点的变化及其意义。方法：建立2日龄SD大鼠缺氧缺血脑室周围白质软化(periventricular leukomalacia, PVL）模型，分别应用荧光定量PCR和Western Blot检测脑白质缺氧缺血后12，24，48 h和72 h GluR2 mRNA和蛋白表达的变化；用Furo 2/ AM荧光探针和双波长荧光分光光度计分别检测脑白质细胞内游离Ca2+浓度。结果：与对照组相比，PVL组大鼠脑白质GluR2 mRNA 和蛋白含量在缺氧缺血后24 h开始降低，并持续降低至72 h（P<0.05）； PVL组大鼠脑白质细胞内游离Ca2+浓度在缺氧缺血后12 h开始升高，持续增高至72 h（P<0.05）。结论：GluR2表达减少可能导致脑白质细胞内钙离子超载，引起细胞损害。［中国当代儿科杂志，2007，9（4）：313-316］     

Neonatal white matter damage and the fetal inflammatory response

In 1962 a long-recognized pathologic abnormality in neonatal brains characterized by multiple telencephalic focal white matter necroses was renamed periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) and the authors inappropriately asserted that their entity was caused by anoxia. They also failed to include three other white matter histologic abnormalities.In this essay, we identify the breadth of white matter pathology, especially in very preterm newborns, and show that none of the four histologic expressions of white matter damage, including focal necrosis, are associated with hypoxemia or correlates as hypotension, but are instead associated with markers of fetal or perinatal inflammation, particularly in preterm babies. We begin with the background needed to evaluate the evidence.     

White matter injury following prolonged free radical formation in the 0.65 gestation fetal sheep brain

Free radicals seem to be involved in the development of cerebral white matter damage after asphyxia in the premature infant. The immature brain may be at increased risk of free radical mediated injury, as particularly the preterm infant has a relative deficiency in brain antioxidants systems, such as superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. In vitro studies show that immature oligodendrocytes express an intrinsic vulnerability to reactive oxygen species and free radical scavengers are able to protect immature oligodendrocytes from injury. The aim of this study was to examine the formation of ascorbyl radicals as a marker of oxidative stress in the preterm brain in association with cerebral white matter injury after intrauterine asphyxia. Fetal sheep at 0.65 gestation were chronically instrumented with vascular catheters and an occluder cuff around the umbilical cord. A microdialysis probe was placed in the periventricular white matter. Fetal asphyxia was induced by occlusion of the umbilical cord for 25 min (n = 10). Microdialysis samples were collected for 72 h and analyzed for ascorbyl radicals using electron spin resonance. Five instrumented fetuses served as controls. Three days after the insult, fetal brains were examined for morphologic injury. Umbilical cord occlusion resulted in prolonged and marked increase in ascorbyl radical production in the brain in connection with white matter injury, with activation of microglia cells in periventricular white matter and axonal injury. These data suggest that reperfusion injury following asphyxia in the immature brain is associated with marked free radical production.     

Diffuse axonal injury in periventricular leukomalacia as determined by apoptotic marker fractin

Periventricular leukomalacia (PVL), the major substrate of neurologic deficits in premature infants, is associated with reduced white matter volume. Using immunomarkers of axonal pathology [beta-amyloid precursor protein (beta-APP) and apoptotic marker fractin], we tested the hypothesis that widespread (diffuse) axonal injury occurs in the gliotic white matter beyond the foci of necrosis in PVL, thus contributing to the white matter volume reduction. In a cohort of 17 control cases and 13 PVL cases with lesions of different chronological ages, diffuse axonal damage in PVL was detected by fractin in white matter sites surrounding and distant from acute and organizing foci of necrosis. Using beta-APP, axonal spheroids were detected within necrotic foci in the acute and organizing (subacute) stages, a finding consistent with others. Interestingly, GAP-43 expression was also detected in spheroids in the necrotic foci, suggesting attempts at axonal regeneration. Thirty-one percent of the PVL cases had thalamic damage and 15% neuronal injury in the cerebral cortex overlying PVL. We conclude that diffuse axonal injury, as determined by apoptotic marker fractin, occurs in PVL and that its cause likely includes primary ischemia and trophic degeneration secondary to corticothalamic neuronal damage.     

经脑室神经干细胞移植对脑室周围白质软化新生大鼠的脑病理评估

目的：对经脑室植入神经干细胞（NSCs）的脑室周围白质软化（Periventricular leukolamacia，PVL）新生大鼠进行光镜下脑病理评估，探讨NSCs移植对治疗早产儿PVL的可行性。方法：采用E14胎鼠大脑皮层制备NSCs。2日龄新生大鼠随机分为PVL对照组（PVL组），PVL＋DMEM/F12培养基对照组（PVL＋DMEM/F12组），PVL＋神经干细胞（NSCs）移植组（PVL＋NSCs组），假手术对照组（Sham组），Sham＋DMEM／F12培养基对照组（Sham＋DMEM/F12组），Sham＋NSCs移植组（Sham＋NSCs组），每组18～21只。对2日龄PVL新生大鼠在建模后72 h进行经脑室NSCs移植，分别于移植后7，14，21 d进行光镜下脑病理评估。结果：随着移植后时间的增加，脑白质病变呈进一步改善。移植后21 d光镜下病理证实，未移植组脑白质呈轻度和重度病变各占50％，神经元病理评分为1.28±0.86。移植组则有30％白质完全正常，轻度和重度病变各占40％和30％，神经元病理评分为0.32±0.16，两组在脑白质病变程度以及神经元病理评分之间的差异均呈非常显著性意义（χ2＝10.7，P<0.01；F=29.664, P<0.01）。结论：经脑室外源性NSCs移植可明显改善脑白质的病理损伤。经脑室NSCs移植对早产儿PVL具有很大的治疗潜力，为今后成功防治早产儿这一最常见的脑损伤顽症提供了新的可行性途径。     

Potential neuronal repair in cerebral white matter injury in the human neonate

Periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) in the premature infant represents the major substrate underlying cognitive deficits and cerebral palsy and is characterized as focal periventricular necrosis and diffuse gliosis in the immature cerebral white matter. We have recently shown a significant decrease in the density of neurons in PVL relative to controls throughout the white matter, including the subventricular, periventricular, and subcortical regions. These neurons are likely to be remnants of the subplate and/or GABAergic neurons in late migration to the cerebral cortex, both of which are important for proper cortical circuitry in development and throughout adulthood. Here, we tested the hypothesis that intrinsic repair occurs in PVL to attempt to compensate for the deficits in white matter neurons. By using doublecortin (DCX) immunopositivity as a marker of postmitotic migrating neurons, we found significantly increased densities (p < 0.05) of DCX-immunopositive cells in PVL cases (n = 9) compared with controls (n = 7) in the subventricular zone (their presumed site of origin), necrotic foci, and subcortical white matter in the perinatal time-window, i.e. 35-42 postconceptional weeks. These data provide the first evidence suggestive of an attempt at neuronal repair or regeneration in human neonatal white matter injury.     

Extensive white matter abnormalities associated with neonatal Parechovirus (HPeV) infection

White matter changes in the neonatal period are commonly associated with hypoxic-ischaemic injuries and, less frequently, infections. Enteroviral (EV) meningoencephalitis as a cause of extensive white matter changes in newborns is well documented but Human Parechovirus (HPeV) associated with a similar picture has only been recently recognized. We report a case of HPeV-related neonatal meningoencephalitis associated with extensive white matter abnormalities, giving rise to a wide differential diagnosis including consequences of hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE) and periventricular leucomalacia (PVL). This case highlights the importance of excluding both EV and HPeV infection in neonates presenting with signs and symptoms of encephalitis. Moreover, HPeV infection ought to be considered in infants with white matter changes suggestive of HIE but no convincing history of a perinatal hypoxic-ischaemic insult.     

Glycine antagonist and NO synthase inhibitor protect the developing mouse brain against neonatal excitotoxic lesions

The prevention of cerebral palsy and neuroprotection of the immature brain continue to be health care priorities. The pathophysiology of perinatal brain lesions associated with cerebral palsy seems to be multifactorial and includes pre- and perinatal factors such as preconceptional events, hormone and growth factors deficiencies, maternal infections with production of cytokines, and hypoxic/ischemic perfusion failures. Excitotoxic cascade could represent a common pathway that leads to neural cell death and subsequent brain damage. Brain injuries induced by ibotenate, a glutamatergic analog, which are essentially mediated through the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, mimic some aspects of the white matter cysts and transcortical necrosis observed in human perinatal brain damage. The purpose of the present study was to assess the protective role of several pharmacological agents, administered in conjunction with ibotenate, against induced excitotoxic lesions. We injected ibotenate in the developing mouse brain 5 d postnatally, after the full settlement of neuronal layers. Co-treatment with kynurenic acid, an antagonist of the facilitating glycine site of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, or with N(G)-nitro-L-arginine, an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthesis, induced a dose-dependent neuroprotective effect. Conversely, zinc gluconate, a blocking agent of the channel linked to the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, and a free radical scavenger (U74389F), were unable to protect the developing brain against excitotoxic attack. These data help to clarify some molecular mechanisms involved in excitotoxic lesions of the developing mouse brain and permit us to envision new strategies in the prevention of cerebral palsy.     

足月儿早产儿痉挛型脑性瘫痪CT的对比研究

目的：研究足月儿与早产儿痉挛型脑性瘫痪的CT表现。方法：回顾性分析88例痉挛型脑性瘫痪患儿CT表现,分早产儿和足月儿两组分析,其中46例足月儿,42例早产儿。结果：88例痉挛型脑性瘫痪患儿CT表现的阳性率78.4%(69/88)。主要是脑室周围白质软化(PVL)后遗改变,为47/88例,其中足月儿17例,早产儿30例,两组差异有显著性意义(P<0.05);PVL白质减少可发生于侧脑室体中前部、侧脑室体后部、侧脑室三角区、半卵圆中心,两组间白质减少和侧脑室扩大部位差异无显著性意义;而侧脑室形态不规则扩大在早产儿30例中有7例,足月儿侧脑室扩大未见不规则改变,两组差异有显著性意义(P<0.05)。结论：痉挛型脑性瘫痪CT主要表现为PVL后遗改变,早产儿出现PVL和重度PVL的概率明显大于足月儿。     

White matter injury in the preterm infant: an important determination of abnormal neurodevelopment outcome

Periventricular white matter injury, specifically cystic periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) and ipsilateral hemorrhage into white matter associated with periventricular-intraventricular hemorrhage (PV-IVH), contribute significantly to neonatal mortality and long-term neurodevelopmental deficits in the premature infant. The first lesion PVL occurs in approximately 3-4% of infants of birth weight (BW) < 1500 grams. It manifests either as a focal or diffuse lesion within white matter. Although the pathogenesis of PVL is complex and likely multifactorial, principle contributors include vascular factors which markedly increase the risk for ischemia during periods of systemic hypotension and the intrinsic vulnerability of the oligodendrocyte to neurotoxic factors such as free radicals or cytokines. Clinical associations with PVL include a history of chorioamnionitis, prolonged rupture of membranes, asphyxia, sepsis, hypocarbia, etc. The vast majority of infants exhibit long-term neurodevelopmental deficits that affect motor, cognitive and visual function. The second lesion, the ipsilateral hemorrhage into white matter lesion associated with PV-IVH, occurs in approximately 10-15% of infants of BW < 1000 grams. The white matter injury appears to be a venous infarction with hemorrhage occurring as a secondary phenomenon. Prevention of this lesion has to include prevention of the associated PV-IVH. In this regard, the antenatal administration of glucocorticoids has been associated with a significant reduction in the sonographic incidence of severe IVH and the associated white matter involvement. The postnatal administration of indomethacin to high risk infants appears to hold the most promise at the current time in preventing this lesion. The neurodevelopmental outcome with extensive white matter injury is universally poor, affecting long-term motor and cognitive deficits; the long-term outcome is more favorable with lesser involvement. A clearer understanding of pathogenesis of both conditions is essential so as to provide targeted preventative strategies.     

Pathogenesis of cerebral white matter injury of prematurity

Cerebral white matter injury, characterised by loss of premyelinating oligodendrocytes (pre-OLs), is the most common form of injury to the preterm brain and is associated with a high risk of neurodevelopmental impairment. The unique cerebrovascular anatomy and physiology of the premature baby underlies the exquisite sensitivity of white matter to the abnormal milieu of preterm extrauterine life, in particular ischaemia and inflammation. These two upstream mechanisms can coexist and amplify their effects, leading to activation of two principal downstream mechanisms: excitotoxicity and free radical attack. Upstream mechanisms trigger generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. The pre-OL is intrinsically vulnerable to free radical attack due to immaturity of antioxidant enzyme systems and iron accumulation. Ischaemia and inflammation trigger glutamate receptor-mediated injury leading to maturation-dependent cell death and loss of cellular processes. This review looks at recent evidence for pathogenetic mechanisms in white matter injury with emphasis on targets for prevention and treatment of injury.     

早产儿脑室周围白质软化的影像学改变及其对预后的影响

脑室周围白质软化( periventricular leukomalacia, PVL)是早产儿具有特征性的脑损伤形式之一,易造成小儿神经系统后遗症,严重影响小儿以后的运动发育和生活质量。早产儿PVL无特异性症状,诊断依赖于影像学检查。经颅超声能对PVL做出初步诊断及预后评价。结合MRI可评价PVL患儿的损伤程度,预测可能发生的不良后果,为早期治疗提供依据。该文对早产儿PVL的影像学改变及其对预后的影响进行综述。     

Generation of periventricular leukomalacia by repeated umbilical cord occlusion in near-term fetal sheep and its possible pathogenetical mechanisms

Periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) is a major cause of cerebral palsy. However, pathogenetic mechanisms of PVL have not been fully understood. Although it has been postulated that umbilical cord compression is related to the development of PVL, no animal experiments clearly demonstrated an association of umbilical cord occlusion with 'periventricular' white matter lesions. The purpose of this study is to determine whether umbilical cord occlusions could produce periventricular white matter lesions in fetal sheep and to examine how changes in fetal cardiovascular and metabolic variables are related to the induction of brain damage. Fourteen near-term fetal sheep underwent umbilical cord occlusion (3-min total cord occlusions 5 times at 5-min intervals). Dissections performed 24 h after cord occlusion revealed that periventricular white matter lesions were produced in 7 out of 14 sheep fetuses. According to the pattern of brain damage, we classified the fetal sheep into three groups: 5 fetuses with dominant lesions in the periventricular white matter (group I), 4 fetuses with brain lesions in the cerebral cortex and thalamus (group II) and 5 fetuses with no or minimal brain lesions (group III). Group I showed higher blood pressure and higher plasma lipid peroxide levels before cord occlusion compared to the other groups, while group II showed systemic hypotension during cord occlusion. No significant differences in changes in pH, PaCO2, PaO2 and heart rate were found between the three groups. It is speculated that PVL might be produced by an association of preexisting chronic circulatory instability with an acute episode of severe repetitive cord occlusion.     

经脑室神经干细胞移植治疗脑室周围白质软化新生大鼠电镜下脑病理评估

目的对经脑室植入神经干细胞(NSCs)的脑室周围白质软化(PVL)新生大鼠进行电镜下脑病理和髓鞘形成评估,探讨NSCs移植对治疗早产儿PVL的可行性,以及胶质细胞源性神经营养因子(GDNF)对NSCs治疗PVL的影响。方法采用颈部正中切开双侧颈总动脉结扎法制备PVL模型。采用孕14 d SD大鼠大脑皮质制备NSCs。2日龄新生大鼠随机分为PVL对照组(PVL组),PVL加NSCs移植组(PVL加NSCs组),PVL加NSCs移植及GDNF组(PVL加NSCs加GDNF组),假手术对照组(Sham组),Sham加NSCs移植组(Sham加NSCs组),以及Sham加NSCs移植及GDNF组(Sham加NSCs加GDNF组)。NSCs移植组将NSCs调整为5×107L-1,将2μL移植液以0.5μL/min注入侧脑室内。GDNF干预组以100μg/L GDNF加入NSCs移植液中注入侧脑室。对2日龄PVL新生大鼠在建模后72 h进行经脑室NSCs移植,分别于移植第21天行电镜下脑病理和髓鞘形成评估。结果移植第21天,电镜显示,PVL组可见部分神经元固缩变形,细胞器减少,罕见髓鞘形成。PVL加NSCs组皮质部位神经元形态基本正常,脑白质内髓鞘形成明显增加。PVL加NSCs加GDNF组皮质改善以及髓鞘形成增多情况较PVL加NSCs组则更为明显。假手术各组未见明显变化。结论经脑室NSCs移植对早产儿PVL具有很大的治疗潜力,GDNF可能具有增强NSCs的治疗作用。