Ultrastructure of human neural stem/progenitor cells and neurospheres

BACKGROUND: Biological and morphological characteristics of neural stern/progenitor cells (NSPCs) have been widely investigated.OBJECTIVE: To explore the ultrastructure of human embryo-derived NSPCs and neurospheres cultivated in vitro using electron microscopy.DESIGN, TIME AND SETTING: A cell biology experiment was performed at the Brain Tumor Laboratory of Soochow University, and Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University between August 2007 and April 2008.MATERIALS: Human fetal brain tissue was obtained from an 8-week-old aborted fetus; serum-free Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium/F12 culture medium was provided by Gibco, USA; scanning electron microscope was provided by Hitachi instruments, Japan; transmission electron microscope was provided by JEOL, Japan.METHODS: NSPCs were isolated from human fetal brain tissue and cultivated in serum-free Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium/F12 culture medium. Cells were passaged every 5-7 days. After three passages, NSPCs were harvested and used for ultrastructural examination.MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Ultrastructural examination of human NSPCs and adjacent cells in neurospheres.RESULTS: Individual NSPCs were visible as spherical morphologies with rough surfaces under scanning electron microscope. Generally, they had large nuclei and little cytoplasm. Nuclei were frequently globular with large amounts of euchromatin and a small quantity of heterochromatin, and most NSPCs had only one nucleolus. The Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum were underdeveloped; however, autophagosomes were clearly visible. The neurospheres were made up of NSPCs and non-fixiform material inside. Between adjacent cells and at the cytoplasmic surface of apposed plasma membranes, there were vesicle-like structures. Some membrane boundaries with high permeabilities were observed between some contiguous NSPCs in neurospheres, possibly attributable to plasmalemmal fusion between adjacent cells.CONCLUSION: A large number of autophagosomes were observed in NSPCs and gap junctions were visible between adjacent NSPCs.     

Reactive astrogliosis induces astrocytic differentiation of adult neural stem/progenitor cells in vitro

Neural stem cells reside in defined areas of the adult mammalian brain, including the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Rat neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) isolated from this region retain their multipotency in vitro and in vivo after grafting into the adult brain. Recent studies have shown that endogenous or grafted NSPCs are activated after an injury and migrate toward lesioned areas. In these areas, reactive astrocytes are present and secrete numerous molecules and growth factors; however, it is not currently known whether reactive astrocytes can influence the lineage selection of NSPCs. We investigated whether reactive astrocytes could affect the differentiation, proliferation, and survival of adult NSPCs by modelling astrogliosis in vitro, using mechanical lesion of primary astrocytes. Initially, it was found that conditioned medium from lesioned astrocytes induced astrocytic differentiation of NSPCs without affecting neuronal or oligodendrocytic differentiation. In addition, NSPCs in coculture with lesioned astrocytes also displayed increased astrocytic differentiation and some of these NSPC-derived astrocytes participated in glial scar formation in vitro. When proliferation and survival of NSPCs were analyzed, no differential effects were observed between lesioned and nonlesioned astrocytes. To investigate the molecular mechanisms of the astrocyte-inducing activity, the expression of two potent inducers of astroglial differentiation, ciliary neurotrophic factor and leukemia inhibitory factor, was analyzed by Western blot and shown to be up-regulated in conditioned medium from lesioned astrocytes. These results demonstrate that lesioned astrocytes can induce astroglial differentiation of NSPCs and provide a mechanism for astroglial differentiation of these cells following brain injury.     

Distribution and localization of fibroblast growth factor-8 in rat brain and nerve cells during neural stem/progenitor cell differentiation

The present study explored the distribution and localization of fibroblast growth factor-8 and its potential receptor,fibroblast growth factor receptor-3,in adult rat brain in vivo and in nerve cells during differentiation of neural stem/progenitor cells in vitro.Immunohistochemistry was used to examine the distribution of fibroblast growth factor-8 in adult rat brain in vivo.Localization of fibroblast growth factor-8 and fibroblast growth factor receptor-3 in cells during neural stem/progenitor cell differentiation in vitro was detected by immunofluorescence.Flow cytometry and immunofluorescence were used to evaluate the effect of an anti-fibroblast growth factor-8 antibody on neural stem/progenitor cell differentiation and expansion in vitro.Results from this study confirmed that fibroblast growth factor-8 was mainly distributed in adult midbrain,namely the substantia nigra,compact part,dorsal tier,substantia nigra and reticular part,but was not detected in the forebrain comprising the caudate putamen and striatum.Unusual results were obtained in retrosplenial locations of adult rat brain.We found that fibroblast growth factor-8 and fibroblast growth factor receptor-3 were distributed on the cell membrane and in the cytoplasm of nerve cells using immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence analyses.We considered that the distribution of fibroblast growth factor-8 and fibroblast growth factor receptor-3 in neural cells corresponded to the characteristics of fibroblast growth factor-8,a secretory factor.Addition of an anti-fibroblast growth factor-8 antibody to cultures significantly affected the rate of expansion and differentiation of neural stem/progenitor cells.In contrast,addition of recombinant fibroblast growth factor-8 to differentiation medium promoted neural stem/progenitor cell differentiation and increased the final yields of dopaminergic neurons and total neurons.Our study may help delineate the important roles of fibroblast growth factor-8 in brain activities and neural stem/progenitor cell differentiation.     

Propofol and remifentanil at moderate and high concentrations affect proliferation and differentiation of neural stem/progenitor cells

Propofol and remifentanil alter intracellular Ca2+ concentration([Ca2+]i) in neural stem/progenitor cells by activating γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors and by reducing testosterone levels.However,whether this process affects neural stem/progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation remains unknown.In the present study,we applied propofol and remifentanil,alone or in combination,at low,moderate or high concentrations(1,2–2.5 and 4–5 times the clinically effective blood drug concentration),to neural stem/progenitor cells from the hippocampi of newborn rat pups.Low concentrations of propofol,remifentanil or both had no noticeable effect on cell proliferation or differentiation; however,moderate and high concentrations of propofol and/or remifentanil markedly suppressed neural stem/progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation,and induced a decrease in [Ca2+]i during the initial stage of neural stem/progenitor cell differentiation.We therefore propose that propofol and remifentanil interfere with the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem/progenitor cells by altering [Ca2+]i.Our findings suggest that propofol and/or remifentanil should be used with caution in pediatric anesthesia.     

Time-sensitive effects of hypoxia on differentiation of neural stem cells derived from mouse embryonic stem cells in vitro

Abstract

Objectives:

Oxygen tension is an important component of microenvironment for the differentiation of embryonic stem cells including neural lineage. However, the comprehensive influence of hypoxia on neural differentiation during embryonic neural development has not yet been examined.

Methods:

In this study, we investigated the effect of low oxygen levels (5% O₂), or hypoxia, in two stages of neural differentiation in vitro: (1) inducing mouse embryonic stem cells into neural stem cells (NSCs); and then (2) inducing NSCs into neural progenitor cells in neurospheres.

Results:

In the first stage, NSCs generation was reduced under hypoxia. Less mature morphological changes (including neural marker) of NSCs were observed, suggesting the prevention of early differentiation under hypoxic conditions. Thus undifferentiated stem cells were maintained in this stage. However, in the second stage, hypoxia induced neural differentiation in neurospheres. Nevertheless, non-neural progenitor cell formation, such as mesoderm progenitor cell lines or epithelial cell lines, was restricted by low oxygen tension.

Discussions:

Our results demonstrate that hypoxia is essential for regulating neural differentiation and show the different effects on NSC differentiation dependent on the time-course of NSC development. In the early stage of NSCs induction, hypoxia inhibits neural differentiation and maintains the undifferentiated state; in the later stage of NSCs induction, hypoxia induces neural differentiation. Our study may contribute to the development of new insights for expansion and control of neural differentiation.     

体外自组装IKVAV纳米凝胶在二维体系中对神经祖细胞分化影响的实验研究

目的：研究体外自组装IKVAV纳米凝胶在二维体系中对神经祖细胞分化的影响。方法：培养神经祖细胞并用免疫荧光方法鉴定。1%含IKVAV的两亲性溶液（IKVAV-PA）在DMEM/F12触发下形成三维多孔凝胶,在透射电镜下观察其结构。把神经祖细胞（NPCs）以1?05 /ml分别接种到1%IKVAV-PA及0.1mg/ml多聚赖氨酸包被的盖玻片上,分别在培养1d、3d、7d用NF-200、GFAP检测其分化情况。结果与结论：培养出NESTIN阳性细胞并且能分化为NF-200阳性的神经元及GFAP阳性的胶质细胞;IKVAV-PA形成凝胶,并在透射电镜（TEM）下显示为纳米纤维,直径7-8纳米,长度100-1500纳米;细胞爬片后各时间点通过NF-200和GFAP检测出IKVAV-PA组的分化能力明显优于多聚赖氨酸组。体外自组装IKVAV纳米凝胶在二维培养体系中对神经祖细胞有一定的分化作用。     

神经干细胞生存因子在大鼠脊髓损伤前后的表达变化

目的观察大鼠脊髓损伤后干细胞来源的神经干细胞生存因子（SDNSF）mRNA在大鼠正常和损伤脊髓的农达变化,以及SDNSF的表达与Ⅵ类中间丝蛋白的表达之间的关系。方法按改良的Allen重物打击法制备大鼠脊髓损伤模型,采用RT—PCR、原位杂交方法,观察SDNSF mRNA在大鼠脊髓中的表达位置及在损伤脊髓中的表达变化。应用免疫组化的方法,显示脊髓中nestin的表达。结果RT-PCR检测SDNSF mRNA在正常大鼠脊髓中的表达,损伤后4天SDNSF的mRNA表达上升,损伤8天剑达高峰,此后SDNSF的mRNA表达逐渐减少,到16天恢复到正常水平;脊髓切片原位杂交结果发现SDNSF的mRNA阳性细胞主要分布十脊髓灰质细胞中,可能足神经元细胞,结果表明正常脊髓可表达SDNSF;脊髓损伤后8犬,原位杂交硅示SDNSF阳性细胞明显增多。同时与此切片相邻层面的切片免疫组化证实nestin阳性细胞增殖、变大、向周围发出突起,但这些阳性细胞在分布上与SDNSF无关。结论（1）SDNSF在脊髓中表达于灰质,脊髓损伤后SDNSF的mRNA表达随时间发生变化。（2）随着脊髓损伤的修复,nestin阳性细胞增殖,但是这些细胞并不表达SDNSF。     

神经干细胞生存因子在大鼠脊髓损伤前后的表达变化(英文)

目的观察大鼠脊髓损伤后干细胞来源的神经干细胞生存因子(SDNSF) mRNA在大鼠正常和损伤脊髓的表达变化,以及SDNSF的表达与Ⅵ类中间丝蛋白的表达之间的关系。方法按改良的Allen重物打击法制备大鼠脊髓损伤模型,采用RT-PCR、原位杂交方法,观察SDNSF mRNA在大鼠脊髓中的表达位置及在损伤脊髓中的表达变化。应用免疫组化的方法,显示脊髓中nestin 的表达。结果 RT-PCR检测SDNSF mRNA在正常大鼠脊髓中的表达,损伤后4天SDNSF 的mRNA表达上升,损伤8天到达高峰,此后SDNSF 的mRNA表达逐渐减少,到16天恢复到正常水平;脊髓切片原位杂交结果发现SDNSF的 mRNA 阳性细胞主要分布于脊髓灰质细胞中,可能是神经元细胞,结果表明正常脊髓可表达SDNSF;脊髓损伤后8天,原位杂交显示SDNSF阳性细胞明显增多。同时与此切片相邻层面的切片免疫组化证实nestin阳性细胞增殖、变大、向周围发出突起,但这些阳性细胞在分布上与SDNSF无关。结论 (1) SDNSF在脊髓中表达于灰质,脊髓损伤后SDNSF的 mRNA表达随时间发生变化。(2)随着脊髓损伤的修复,nestin 阳性细胞增殖,但是这些细胞并不表达SDNSF。     

嗅鞘细胞诱导神经干细胞分化后神经元电生理特性的研究

目的探索大鼠嗅鞘细胞对神经干细胞(NSC)分化的影响,以及分化后神经元电生理特性。方法取新生鼠大脑皮质,原代培养大鼠NSC。NSC分为实验组和对照组,实验组将无血清培养的NSC中加入嗅鞘细胞条件培养液,对照组单纯无血清培养NSC。光镜下观察细胞分化情况,免疫组化法分别检测巢蛋白(nestin)、神经生长因子受体(NGFRp75)、神经丝蛋白(NF200)和胶质纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP)的表达,膜片钳检测神经元电生理特性。结果实验组嗅鞘细胞主要诱导NSC分化为神经元,少量分化为胶质细胞。对照组NSC逐渐萎缩,最终死亡。分化后的神经元记录到快速激活、快速失活能被河豚毒素特异阻断的钠电流,以及慢激活、慢失活能被四乙铵特异阻断的延迟整流性钾电流。结论嗅鞘细胞能诱导NSC分化成神经元,分化后的神经元具有活跃的电生理特性。     

Role of gamma-aminobutyric acid in early neuronal development: studies with an embryonic neuroectodermal stem cell clone

gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) has been known to function as an autocrine/paracrine signal molecule in addition to its well-known inhibitory neurotransmitter function. Studies on the developing brain and on primary brain cell cultures provided evidence for a variety of GABA functions in periods preceding the formation of synapses. The exact role of GABA in the early neural development, however, is still not well understood. In this study, one-cell-derived NE-4C neuroectodermal stem cells were induced to form neurons and astrocytes in vitro, and the role of GABA was investigated in defined phases of neurogenesis. Noninduced NE-4C cells contained GABA, expressed GABA(A)R alpha subunits, and carried functional GABA(A) ion channels. A moderate cytoplasmic GABA content was detected during the entire period of differentiation. By the time of the formation of differentiated neurons, neuron-like cells with both high and low GABA content were clearly distinguishable. HPLC analysis indicated that NE-4C cells released GABA into their fluid environment during all stages of neuronal development. By using the patch-clamp technique, GABA-evoked currents were recorded during the entire proliferation/differentiation period, whereas a GABA-evoked increase in intracellular Ca(2+) was detected only during the maturation of postmitotic neuronal precursors. Bicuculline blocked both the ion currents and the [Ca(2+)](i) increase in response to GABA. Neuron formation was facilitated by GABA through GABA(A) ion channels during postmitotic differentiation, but not earlier during the phases of cell fate commitment. Although the data clearly demonstrate an early responsiveness to GABA, understanding the significance of GABA influence in early neural cell fate decisions will require further investigation.     

Glial cell line‐derived neurotrophic factor enhances in vitro differentiation of mid‐/hindbrain neural progenitor cells to dopaminergic‐like neurons

Parkinson's disease (PD) affects the motor system through the degeneration of the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. The use of human embryonic stem cell (hESC)‐derived human neural progenitor (hNP) cells provides a potential cell source for cell therapies and drug screens for future treatments. Glial cell line‐derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is a known dopaminergic neuroprotectant agent; however, its potential role in neural differentiation remains largely unknown. Addition of 25 ng/ml GDNF to hNP cell differentiation media, over a 21‐day period, induced a significantly (P < 0.05) greater portion of hNP cells to differentiate into dopaminergic neurons than non‐GDNF cultures, 50% compared with 2.9% of cells expressing tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), respectively. The hNP cells exposed to GDNF selectively expressed dopamine receptors 1, 4, and 5 and were evoked to release dopamine with KCl. This is the first report of GDNF and leukemia inhibitory factor enriching hESC‐derived hNP cells toward dopaminergic‐like neurons. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Possible promotion of neuronal differentiation in fetal rat brain neural progenitor cells after sustained exposure to static magnetism

We have previously shown significant potentiation of Ca²⁺ influx mediated by N‐methyl‐D ‐aspartate receptors, along with decreased microtubules‐associated protein‐2 (MAP2) expression, in hippocampal neurons cultured under static magnetism without cell death. In this study, we investigated the effects of static magnetism on the functionality of neural progenitor cells endowed to proliferate for self‐replication and differentiate into neuronal, astroglial, and oligodendroglial lineages. Neural progenitor cells were isolated from embryonic rat neocortex and hippocampus, followed by culture under static magnetism at 100 mT and subsequent determination of the number of cells immunoreactive for a marker protein of particular progeny lineages. Static magnetism not only significantly decreased proliferation of neural progenitor cells without affecting cell viability, but also promoted differentiation into cells immunoreactive for MAP2 with a concomitant decrease in that for an astroglial marker, irrespective of the presence of differentiation inducers. In neural progenitors cultured under static magnetism, a significant increase was seen in mRNA expression of several activator‐type proneural genes, such as Mash1, Math1, and Math3, together with decreased mRNA expression of the repressor type Hes5. These results suggest that sustained static magnetism could suppress proliferation for self‐renewal and facilitate differentiation into neurons through promoted expression of activator‐type proneural genes by progenitor cells in fetal rat brain. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Stromal cell‐secreted factors promote the survival of embryonic stem cell‐derived early neural stem/progenitor cells via the activation of MAPK and PI3K‐Akt pathways

Neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs) have been studied extensively with the hope of using them clinically to repair the damaged central nervous system. However, little is known about the signals that regulate the proliferation, survival, and differentiation of NS/PCs in early development. To clarify the underlying mechanisms, we took advantage of an in vitro ES cell differentiation system from which we can obtain neurospheres containing NS/PCs with characteristics of the early caudal neural tube, by treating embryoid bodies (EBs) with a low concentration of retinoic acid (RA). We found that conditioned medium from the PA6 stromal cell line (PA6CM) increased the efficiency of neurosphere formation by suppressing apoptosis and promoting the survival of the NS/PCs. PA6CM also induced the phosphorylation of Erk1/2 and Akt1 in cells derived from the EBs. Furthermore, inhibitors of the MAPK and PI3K‐Akt signaling pathways, U0126 and LY294002, attenuated the effects of PA6CM, significantly increasing the number of apoptotic cells and decreasing the number of viable cells among the ES cell‐derived NS/PCs. Thus, PA6CM appears to contain soluble factors that promote the survival of ES cell‐derived early NS/PCs through the activation of the MAPK and PI3K‐Akt pathways. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.