Two-dimensional echocardiography using second harmonic imaging for the diagnosis of intracardiac right-to-left shunt: a meta-analysis of prospective studies

Right-to-left shunting (RLS), usually through a patent foramen ovale (PFO), has been associated with migraine, cryptogenic stroke and hypoxemia. With emerging observational studies and clinical trials on the subject of PFO, there is a need for accurate diagnosis of PFO in patients being considered for transcatheter closure. While transesophageal echo (TEE) bubble study is the current standard reference for diagnosing PFO, transthoracic echo with second harmonic imaging (TTE-HI) may be a preferable screening test for RLS due to its high accuracy and non-invasiveness. The aim of this meta-analysis was to determine the accuracy of TTE-HI compared to TEE as the reference. A systematic review of Medline, Cochrane and Embase was done for all the prospective studies assessing for intracardiac RLS using TTE-HI compared to TEE as the reference; both TTE-HI and TEE were performed with a contrast agent and a maneuver to provoke RLS in all studies. A total of 15 studies with 1995 patients fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The weighted mean sensitivity and specificity for TTE-HI were 91 and 93 % respectively. Likewise, the positive and negative likelihood ratios were 13.52 and 0.13 respectively. TTE-HI is a reliable, non-invasive test with proficient diagnostic accuracies. The high sensitivity and specificity of TTE-HI make it a useful initial screening test for RLS. If the precise anatomy is required, then TEE can be obtained before scheduling a patient for transcatheter PFO closure.     

超声心动图在卵圆孔未闭封堵中的应用及卵圆孔未闭分流方向的探讨

目的探讨超声心动图在卵圆孔未闭(PFO)治疗中的应用价值.方法 7例封堵治疗PFO患者,术前经胸(TTE)或经食管超声心动图(TEE)明确PFO诊断,术中TTE和X线引导监护,术后TTE随访;并对157例PFO分流方向进行统计分析.结果 7例PFO封堵患者右向左分流的确诊方法:TTE 1例,TEE 4例,TTE或TEE 右心声学造影各1例.术后TTE随访PFO分流消失.157例TTE诊断的PFO以左向右分流表现为主,少数右向左分流和双向分流者多伴其他心脏结构和功能改变.结论超声心动图在PFO封堵术中具有多方面重要作用.TEE及声学造影诊断PFO右向左分流的敏感性高于单纯TTE.常规TTE检查PFO多表现为左向右分流,而非理论定义的右向左分流.     

Interventional closure of atrial septal defects without fluoroscopy in adult and pediatric patients

Background

Interventional closure of atrial septal defects (ASDs) with a transcatheter device is the preferred strategy in children and adults. This procedure has been proven in numerous studies, but X-ray and contrast agent exposure is still a major side effect. The aim of this study was to clarify whether the interventional closure of ASDs is possible and safe if it is guided by transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) alone.

Methods and results

We retrospectively selected and studied pediatric and adult patients with interventional closure of ASDs at the Deutsches Herzzentrum Berlin (DHZB) without fluoroscopy between 1999 and 2010. We included 330 out of 1,605 patients; 254 had an ASD II, 30 a PFO and 46 multiperforated atrial septum. Median age was 8.92 (0.96–76.3)?years and median body weight 32.6 (8.3–156)?kg. Median stretched defect size was 13 (5–29)?mm. Median procedure time was 50 (20–170)?min. Closure was performed in the majority of patients with the Amplatzer^? septal occluder or Amplatzer^? PFO occluder. The procedure succeeded in 98.2?% of cases and closure rate was 94.9?% after 48?h. Complication rate was low and procedure time was similar to that necessary with studies using fluoroscopy.

Conclusion

Interventional closure of ASDs is safe and effective if guided with TEE alone. The results can compete with those with the use of fluoroscopy. TEE-guided closure of ASD should be considered in more catheter laboratories to avoid unnecessary radiation exposure for the patient and the examiner.     

超声心动图联合右心声学造影在卵圆孔未闭诊断中的价值探讨

目的:探讨经食道超声心动图(transesophageal echocardiography,TEE)、右心声学造影(contrast transthoracic echocardiography,cTTE)在卵圆孔未闭(patent foramen ovale,PFO)诊断中的应用价值.方法:本研究选取2019年8月...     

Transthoracic contrast echocardiography using vitamin B6 and sodium bicarbonate as contrast agents for the diagnosis of patent foramen ovale

To evaluate the utility of transthoracic contrast echocardiography (cTTE) using vitamin B6 and sodium bicarbonate as contrast agents for diagnosing right-to-left shunt (RLS) caused by patent foramen ovale (PFO) compared to that of transesophageal echocardiography (TEE). We investigated 125 patients admitted to our neurology department with unexplained cerebral infarction and migraine. All patients underwent cTTE using vitamin B6 and sodium bicarbonate as contrast agents, after which they underwent transthoracic echocardiography. The Doppler signal was recorded during the Valsalva maneuver, and TEE examinations were performed. The feasibility, diagnostic sensitivity, and safety of cTTE and TEE for PFO recognition were compared. Evidence of PFO was found in 49 (39.20%) patients with cTTE, more than were detected with TEE (39, 31.20%) (χ²=5.0625, P=0.0244). cTTE had a sensitivity of 92.31% and a specificity of 84.88% for diagnosing PFO, showing high concordance with TEE for PFO recognition (κ=0.72). Further, results of a semi-quantitative evaluation of PFO-RLS by cTTE were better than those with TEE (Z=?2.011, P=0.044). No significant adverse reaction was discovered during cTTE examination. cTTE using vitamin B6 and sodium bicarbonate as contrast agents has relatively good sensitivity and specificity for diagnosing RLS caused by PFO when compared with those for TEE. Using vitamin B6 and sodium bicarbonate as contrast agents to perform cTTE is recommended for detecting and diagnosing the PFO due to its simplicity, non-invasive character, low cost, and high feasibility.     

经颅多普勒发泡试验筛查缺血性卒中合并卵圆孔未闭的应用价值

目的探讨经颅多普勒发泡试验(c-TCD)筛查缺血性卒中合并卵圆孔未闭(PFO)的应用价值。方法收集我院神经内科450例缺血性卒中患者,均给予经食管心脏超声(TEE)、右心声学造影、c-TCD检查。观察c-TCD、TEE联合经右心声学造影检查PFO的阳性率。将TEE联合经右心声学造影检查结果视为PFO诊断的"金标准",计算c-TCD的阳性预测值、阴性预测值、灵敏度、特异度及准确率。结果 TEE联合经右心声学造影检查显示,阳性为72例,阳性率为16.00%,即450例患者中,PFO的发生率为16.00%;c-TCD检查显示,65例清晰可见微栓子信号,阳性率为14.44%,c-TCD与TEE联合经右心声学造影检查阳性率比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);c-TCD相对于TEE联合经右心声学造影的阳性预测值为96.92%、阴性预测值为97.66%、灵敏度为87.50%、特异度为99.47%、准确率为97.56%、一致性Kappa值为0.837。结论 c-TCD在筛查诊断缺血性卒中合并PFO中具有灵敏度、特异度、准确率高的特点,且无创、安全,易于患者接受,可考虑将c-TCD作为PFO的无创初筛手段,针对阳性患者再进一步做TEE+经右心声学造影检查确诊,以减轻患者的痛苦。     

C-TCD与TEE在筛选卵圆孔未闭相关性隐源性卒中中的诊断价值

目的探究经颅多普勒发泡实验(C-TCD)和经食道超声心动图(TEE)在筛查卵圆孔未闭(PFO)相关性隐源性卒中(CS)中的诊断价值。方法收集2018年10月至2019年9月于我院神经内科收治的CS患者105例,均行C-TCD与TEE检查。分析两种方式对PFO的检出情况。结果105例CS患者中,经C-TCD平静呼吸时PFO检出率为35%(阳性37例,阴性68例);经TEE的PFO检出率为42%(阳性44例,阴性61例)。两种方法对PFO的检出率比较,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。C-TCD行Valsalva动作后的PFO检出率为56%(阳性59例,阴性46例),与TEE的检出率比较,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论C-TCD与TEE对PFO均有较高的检出率,Valsalva动作可提高检出率,C-TCD可作为临床工作中筛选PFO的首选方法。     

经胸和经食管超声心动图诊断卵圆孔未闭的对比研究

目的 对比研究经胸超声心动图TTE和经食管超声心动图TEE对卵圆孔未闭(patent foramen ovale，PFO)的诊断方法和诊断价值，及对卵圆孔未闭的临床意义。方法 运用经胸及经食管超声心动图检查，诊断卵圆孔未闭24例，根据患者有无合并其他心脏疾患及合并的心脏疾患的血流动力学特点将患者分为卵圆孔未闭组及卵圆孔开放组。结果 经胸超声心动图通过CDFI观察房水平的穿隔血流对卵圆孔未闭的诊断准确率为58．3％。经食管超声心动图检查能对所有患者做出正确诊断。卵圆孔未闭组可见卵圆孔瓣上缘与继发隔之间裂缝，CDFI显示源于卵圆孔瓣与继发隔交界边缘处的穿隔血流；卵圆孔开放组可见卵圆孔瓣上缘与继发隔之间出现回声缺失，但卵圆孔瓣尚完整，CDFI于缺口处探及垂直于房间隔的穿隔分流束。结论 经食管超声心动图是目前卵圆孔未闭诊断金标准的首选方法。卵圆孔未闭可导致反常栓塞，应予以积极治疗。     

Clinical evaluation of a novel occluder device (Occlutech<Superscript>®</Superscript>) for percutaneous transcatheter closure of patent foramen ovale (PFO)

Background

We investigated the safety, feasibility and usefulness for closure of PFO with the new nitinol meshwire PFO-occluder device (Occlutech Figulla^®-single layer occluder) with an unique braiding technology which allows a 50% reduction of meshwork material on the left atrial side in combination with a greater flexibility as compared to the Amplatzer^® occluder device.

Methods

The retention discs of the new PFO Occlutech Figulla^® single layer device (23/25 mm) are connected by a 3 mm waist in the centre with only one right atrial side hub. The left atrial disc is a single flat layer covered by an ultrathin polyethylene terephthalate (PET) patch. We investigated the safety, feasibility and usefulness for closure of PFO in a multicenter clinical trial. Indications for closure included cryptogenic stroke with evidence of a patent foramen ovale in transesophageal echocardiography (PFO max. diameter 13 mm according to sizing balloon). The device was implanted in 36 patients (mean age 57, 18–80 years) by means of fluoroscopy and transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) using a 9 French delivery sheath and employing a femoral vein approach. Both acetylsalicylacid 100 mg/d (6 months) and clopidogrel 75 mg/d (3 months) were administered post interventional. A transthoracal (TTE) and transesophageal echocardiography follow-up examination was performed after 1, 2 and 6 months (TTE day 30 and 180; TEE day 60).

Results

The device was successfully implanted in 36 pts. In one patient PFO implantations was attempted but not crossed with a guide wire. Perioperativly there were no major in-hospital-adverse events or complications thromboembolism, occluder dislodgement, infection or myocardial infarction. One patient had transient atrial fibrillation 2 h after implantation, which terminated medically after 12 h. TEE studies in the remaining 35 pts (one pt was unwilling to further participate) showed a residual shunt in 8.6% (3/35) after 60 days and a left-to-right shunt in 2.6% (1/35) of pts. After 180 days one pt with severe arteriosclerotic heart disease and A.carotic stenosis revealed a stroke without evidence of cardioembolic origin or devices thrombosis.

Conclusions

The novel Occlutech Figulla^® PFO N single layer device appears to be safe, feasible and useful for PFO closure despite a 50% reduction of the meshwire, no distal hub and an improved flexibility of the left atrial disc.

     

经颅多普勒超声诊断脑梗死患者卵圆孔未闭的价值

目的探讨经颅多普勒超声微泡实验对脑梗死患者卵圆孔未闭(PFO)的诊断价值。方法运用经颅多普勒超声微泡实验对经食管超声心动图诊断的28例缺血性脑卒中患者进行PFO检测,分析不同卵圆孔特点下经颅多普勒超声微泡实验对PFO诊断检出率的变化。结果 28例患者中,经颅多普勒超声微泡实验在平静呼吸状态下对PFO检出20例(71.43%),配合Valsalva动作后检出24例(85.71%)。卵圆孔大小及开放状态与PFO的检出率无关(P>0.05)。结论经颅多普勒超声微泡实验对脑梗死患者的PFO的诊断具有较高敏感性,配合Valsalva动作可以提高诊断敏感性,可以作为PFO的筛查手段。     

卵圆孔未闭介入封堵预防隐源性脑卒中复发

目的 探究卵圆孔未闭(PFO)封堵治疗的安全性、有效性,进一步讨论介入封堵治疗PFO的临床意义。方法 选取2019年1-7月我院行PFO介入封堵术的PFO患者90例,术前所有患者均行经胸超声心动图右心声学造影（cTTE）及经食道超声心动图（TEE）证实为卵圆孔未闭并存在右向左分流。封堵成功即刻予床旁经胸超声心动图（TTE）,观察封堵器及分流情况。术后3个月,行cTTE及颅脑CT。结果 所有患者均成功置入封堵器,即刻经胸超声心动图证实封堵器位置正常,二、三尖瓣功能正常,未见残余分流,均未出现术中、术后并发症。术后随访3个月,58.9%患者头痛症状完全消失,34.4%患者头痛症状明显改善,发作频率较前明显减少,总的有效率为93.3%。术前27例一侧肢体麻木乏力患者中19例术后肢体麻木乏力症状完全消失,8例肢体麻木乏力症状虽未完全消失但较前不同程度缓解;术前8例恶心呕吐患者,术后症状完全消失。术后3个月复查经胸壁超声心动图右心声学造影示阳性率为5.6%（5/90）。术后3个月复查颅脑CT,提示本研究中90例患者均未发现新发梗死灶,再发脑卒中发生率为0%。结论 介入封堵治疗PFO可明显缓解患者临床症状,解除患者痛苦,减少分流量,降低脑卒中的再发风险,是一种安全、有效的治疗方法,对PFO的治疗具有指导意义。     

卵圆孔未闭经胸超声心动图声学造影及经食管超声心动图的单中心诊断数据分析

目的对卵圆孔未闭（PFO）的经胸超声心动图声学造影（cTTE）及经食管超声心动图（TEE）诊断数据进行分析,探讨cTTE和TEE检查的结果和临床意义。 方法回顾性选取2014年8月至2019年6月疑诊PFO相关疾病、在解放军总医院第一医学中心超声诊断科行cTTE及TEE检查的患者1164例。分析TEE、cTTE及二者联合方法对PFO的检出率,cTTE对右向左分流起源以及分流量的诊断评估结果,TEE对PFO形态结构特点的诊断结果。 结果1164例患者分为先兆偏头痛（MA）组314例、无先兆偏头痛（MO）组219例、隐源性脑梗死（CCI）和（或）短暂性脑缺血发作（TIA）组279例和其他病变组352例。cTTE和（或）TTE检出PFO 282例（282/1164,24.2%）。4组不同临床分组间PFO检出率差异有统计学意义（χ²=17.94,P<0.001）,其中MA患者PFO检出率最高（98/314,31.2%）。1164例患者中764例接受了cTTE检查,检出PFO170例（170/764,22.3%）;816例患者接受了TEE检查,检出PFO 221例（221/816,27.1%）。412例患者接受了cTTE和TEE联合检查,检出PFO125例（125/412,30.3%）。接受cTTE检查的764例患者中,cTTE检出右向左分流者474例（474/764,62.0%）。其中170例PFO右向左分流患者中,分流量为大量者居多（101/170,59.4%）;383例肺循环右向左分流患者中,分流量为少量者居多（185/383,48.3%）;79例二者合并存在者,分流量为大量者居多（54/79,68.4%）。TEE检出的221例PFO患者中,均可记录PFO宽度,平均宽度为（1.61±0.92）mm,狭长形态PFO78例,平均长度为（10.53±3.52）mm。TEE检出分流132例,其中左向右分流122例,右向左分流1例,双向分流9例;检出房间隔膨胀瘤14例,左心房房间隔袋20例,瓣膜丝状物41例。 结论MA、CCI和（或）TIA患者PFO检出率高于MO和其他疾病患者。TEE与cTTE联合应用可提高PFO检出率。cTTE对于右向左分流的检出以及右向左分流起源的判断具有重要价值。PFO相关疾病患者中,PFO右向左分流多为大量,半数以上存在肺循环右向左分流,在检查中需注意鉴别。     

To close or not to close: contemporary indications for patent foramen ovale closure

Introduction: Patent foramen ovale (PFO) is a common congenital cardiac abnormality and that has been associated with several disease processes including transient ischemic attacks (TIA), stroke, migraine headaches with aura, decompression sickness, platypnea-orthodeoxia syndrome, and shunt induced cyanosis. Controversy exists regarding closure of PFO as a therapeutic treatment modality for these disease processes. This review addresses the contemporary clinical indications for PFO closure.

Areas covered: We conducted a comprehensive literature search of contemporary research studies focusing on randomized trials and meta-analyses comparing medical therapy and device closure of PFOs for the treatment of PFO associated clinical syndromes. We synthesized this literature into a review addressing indications for PFO closure in stroke, TIA, migraine headaches with aura, decompression sickness, platypnea-orthodeoxia syndrome, and shunt induced cyanosis.

Expert commentary: Because in many PFO associated conditions it can be difficult to determine the degree to which the PFO is a causative factor in the disease process, we recommend a comprehensive diagnostic evaluation to exclude other obvious etiologies of PFO associated conditions before implicating the PFO and proceeding with closure. However in the properly selected patient population there is growing clinical experience and experimental evidence suggesting that closure of PFO is a safe and effective treatment modality.     

封堵卵圆孔未闭预防卒中的国外发展及中国现状

经过近20年的争议和大量研究,封堵卵圆孔未闭(patent foramen ovale,PFO)在卒中二级预防中的作用已经明确.本文从循证医学证据入手,回顾近年来国内外经导管封堵PFO预防卒中的研究成果,旨在明确能从封堵治疗中获益的PFO人群.     

Prevalence and prognostic value of acute cor pulmonale and patent foramen ovale in ventilated patients with early acute respiratory distress syndrome: a multicenter study

Purpose

We sought to determine the prevalence of and factors associated with acute cor pulmonale (ACP) and patent foramen ovale (PFO) at the early phase of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and to assess their relation with mortality.

Methods

In this prospective multicenter study, 200 patients submitted to protective ventilation for early moderate to severe ARDS [PaO₂/F_IO₂: 115 ± 39 with F_IO₂: 1; positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP): 10.6 ± 3.1 cmH₂O] underwent transthoracic (TTE) and transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) <48 h after admission. Echocardiograms were independently interpreted by two experts. Factors associated with ACP, PFO, and 28-day mortality were identified using multivariate regression analysis.

Results

TEE depicted ACP in 45/200 patients [22.5%; 95 % confidence interval (CI) 16.9–28.9 %], PFO in 31 patients (15.5 %; 95 % CI 10.8–21.3 %), and both ACP and PFO in 9 patients (4.5 %; 95 % CI 2.1–8.4 %). PFO shunting was small and intermittent in 27 patients, moderate and consistent in 4 patients, and large or extensive in no instances. PaCO₂ >60 mmHg was strongly associated with ACP [odds ratio (OR) 3.70; 95 % CI 1.32–10.38; p = 0.01]. No factor was independently associated with PFO, with only a trend for age (OR 2.07; 95 % CI 0.91–4.72; p = 0.08). Twenty-eight-day mortality was 23 %. Plateau pressure (OR 1.15; 95 % CI 1.05–1.26; p < 0.01) and air leaks (OR 5.48; 95 % CI 1.30–22.99; p = 0.02), but neither ACP nor PFO, were independently associated with outcome.

Conclusions

TEE screening allowed identification of ACP in one-fourth of patients submitted to protective ventilation for early moderate to severe ARDS. PFO shunting was less frequent and never large or extensive. ACP and PFO were not related to outcome.     

Patent foramen ovale transcatheter closure device thrombosis

The role of patent foramen ovale (PFO) in patients with cryptogenic stroke (stroke of unknown cause) remains controversial, although an association seems likely in younger patients with atrial septal aneurysms and PFO. The mechanism of cryptogenic stroke in these patients is presumed to be paradoxical embolism via right-to-left shunt across the PFO. The available options for treatment include medical therapy with antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy or closure of the PFO surgically or with use of transcatheter PFO closure devices. We describe 2 cases of bilateral device thrombosis associated with use of a transcatheter PFO closure device (CardioSEAL). To our knowledge, only 1 other case of thrombosis associated with use of this device has been reported.     

High prevalence of patent foramen ovale in migraine with aura

In this study we evaluated the presence of patent foramen ovale (PFO) in a cohort of 25 consecutive patients suffering from migraine with aura (MA) during an attack presenting to the emergency ward of an Italian hospital. Patients underwent brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with contrast medium, routine coagulation tests, contrast transcranial echocolour–coded sonography (c–TCCS) and transoesophageal echocardiography (TEE). Of the enrolled patients, 88.7% showed a PFO according to the c–TCCS test, whereas only in 72% TEE confirmed the presence of PFO. This discordance could be due to the fact that c–TCCS is more sensitive even with shunts with minimal capacity also located in the pulmonary vasculature. After surgical treatment of the PFO, MA disappeared within two months. Also, the treatment with warfarin as well as with acetylsalicylic acid and flunarizine was able to dramatically reduce the frequency of migraine attacks. These data indicate a higher prevalence of PFO in MA vs. normal population (OR=2.92) and could suggest that the presence of arteriovenous (AV) shunts could represent a trigger for MA attacks as well as for stroke, but more studies are needed to confirm this preliminary hypothesis.     

Intracardiac and intraluminal echocardiography: indications and standard approaches

In particular clinical scenarios, transthoracic and transoesophageal echocardiography (TEE) have limitations. This study sought to test if intracardiac and intraluminal echocardiography (ICLE), including 2-D, M-mode and Doppler analysis with a miniaturised, multiple-frequency transducer-tipped catheter, is suitable for assessing distinct cardiac and vascular disorders. ICLE was employed in 10 animals using 6 standard approaches. In 12 patients undergoing device closure of patent foramina ovalia (PFO) (n = 6) or atrial septal defects (ASD) (n = 3), or aortic stent implantation (n = 3), interventional procedures were guided by ICLE and, for comparison, also by TEE. ICLE provided enhanced diagnostic information on the aorta, cardiac valves, main pulmonary vessels and both atria and, therefore, added to the diagnostic spectrum of TEE. Especially for guiding interventional procedures (e.g., device closure of atrial septal defects and patent foramina ovalia), ICLE was shown to be helpful. Compared with the conventional approach, the technique reduced fluoroscopy time for device closure procedures: 6.5 min vs. 8.9 min, p < 0.0011. With the patient in a supine position, ICLE was better tolerated than TEE. Complications did not occur, either with ICLE or with TEE. In conclusion, ICLE adds to conventional echocardiography and promises to become a clinical alternative for guiding interventional procedures.     

经胸右心声学造影不同右心房增压方式评估卵圆孔未闭隐匿性右向左分流的价值

目的探讨不同右心房增压方式应用于经胸右心声学造影（C-TTE）评估卵圆孔未闭（PFO）隐匿性右向左分流（RLS）的价值。 方法回顾性选取2019年6月至2020年6月在四川省人民医院行C-TTE检查的患者70例。所有患者均经手术或经食管超声心动图（TEE）确诊为PFO。所有患者静息状态下C-TTE均为阴性,然后依次完成了用力咳嗽（CH）、有效Valsalva动作（SVM）、有效Valsalva动作放松即刻用力咳嗽（SVM-CH）3种右心房增压方式,且至少有1种增压方式激发出RLS。比较不同增压方式对PFO隐匿性RLS的检出率,并与TEE进行对比分析。 结果CH、SVM、SVM-CH 3种增压方式和CH+SVM、SVM+SVM-CH 2种增压方式联合应用,C-TTE对PFO隐匿性RLS的检出率分别为71.43%、95.71%、81.43%、97.14%、100%,对大量RLS的检出率分别为10.00%、54.28％、35.71％、55.72％、71.43％。CH、SVM、SVM-CH、CH+SVM、SVM+SVM-CH对无、少量、中量、大量RLS检出率的比较,总体差异有统计学意义（χ²=37.771,P＜0.001）。70例中有34例进行了TEE检查,SVM+SVM-CH联合增压方式下C-TTE对PFO隐匿性RLS的检出率（100%,34/34）高于TEE的检出率（82.35%,28/34）。34例中SVM-CH检出而SVM未检出RLS者3例,此3例TEE均显示为长裂隙样PFO。 结论SVM和SVM-CH两种增压模式联合应用有助于提高C-TTE对PFO隐匿性RLS的检出率,且C-TTE配合右心房增压方式的合理选择对于PFO隐匿性RLS的检出率优于TEE。     

Patent foramen ovale closure: past, present and future

Patent foramen ovale (PFO) is a common congenital abnormality that has been implicated in a number of disease processes, including cryptogenic stroke and migraine headaches. Medical treatment for these processes is often considered inadequate and mechanical closure of the PFO is an attractive, albeit controversial, alternative. PFO closure has become common practice in many centers, although recent guidelines limit its indication to certain subsets of patients. This review first focuses on the anatomy, physiology and pathophysiology of PFO, and then reviews the currently available and experimental devices for PFO closure, as well as the present clinical data pertaining to them. Finally, we present our perspective of the PFO closure, with regard to its current use and future directions.