Differential anti-proliferative activities of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors in triple-negative breast cancer cells

Despite recent advances in the clinical evaluation of various poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) patients, data defining potential anti-tumor mechanisms beyond PARP inhibition for these agents are lacking. To address this issue, we investigated the effects of four different PARP inhibitors (AG-014699, AZD-2281, ABT-888, and BSI-201) in three genetically distinct TNBC cell lines (MDA-MB-468, MDA-MB-231, and Cal-51). Assays of cell viability and colony formation and flow cytometric analysis were used to determine effects on cell growth and cell cycle progression. PARP-dependent and -independent signaling mechanisms of each PARP inhibitor were investigated by western blotting and shRNA approaches. Potential synergistic interactions between PARP inhibitors and cisplatin in suppressing TNBC cell viability were assessed. These PARP inhibitors exhibited differential anti-tumor activities, with the relative potencies of AG-014699 > AZD-2281 > ABT-888 > BSI-201. The higher potencies of AG-014699 and AZD-2281 were associated with their effects on G(2)/M arrest and DNA damage as manifested by γ-H2AX formation and, for AG-014699, its unique ability to suppress Stat3 phosphorylation. Abilities of individual PARP inhibitors to sensitize TNBC cells to cisplatin varied to a great extent in a cell context- and cell line-specific manner. Differential activation of signaling pathways suggests that the PARP inhibitors currently in clinical trials have different anti-tumor mechanisms beyond PARP inhibition and these PARP-independent mechanisms warrant further investigation.     

聚腺苷二磷酸-核糖聚合酶抑制剂研究进展

肿瘤基因的不稳定性使其更容易产生并积累DNA损伤,但同时也会导致肿瘤DNA损伤修复功能发生部分丢失,使其更依赖于尚存的DNA修复路径,充分修复放化疗所致的DNA损伤,导致放化疗抵抗。聚腺苷二磷酸-核糖聚合酶[poly-（ADP-ribose）polymerase,PARP]抑制剂可以在同源重组修复缺陷（homologous recombination deficiency,HRD）肿瘤细胞中充分修复DNA损伤,产生协同细胞杀伤的作用。目前,多种PARP抑制剂（PARP inhibitor,PARPi）通过美国食品药品监督管理局（FDA）审批用于晚期卵巢癌患者,多项临床试验也正在评估PARPi单药或联合放化疗是否可以使更多患者获益,以及毒性是否可以耐受,研究对象也从卵巢癌扩大到乳腺癌、前列腺癌、直肠癌、肺癌、胰腺癌、腹膜肿瘤、头颈部肿瘤、脑瘤、鳞状细胞癌及肉瘤等。本文对已应用于临床的PARPi研究情况及面临的问题进行综述。      

Novel inhibitors of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase/PARP1 and PARP2 identified using a cell-based screen in yeast

Multicellular organisms must have means of preserving their genomic integrity or face catastrophic consequences such as uncontrolled cell proliferation or massive cell death. One response is a modification of nuclear proteins by the addition and removal of polymers of ADP-ribose that modulate the properties of DNA-binding proteins involved in DNA repair and metabolism. These ADP-ribose units are added by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) and removed by poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase. Although budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae does not possess proteins with significant sequence similarity to the human PARP family of proteins, we identified novel small molecule inhibitors against two family members, PARP1 and PARP2, using a cell-based assay in yeast. The assay was based on the reversal of growth inhibition caused by the heterologous expression of either PARP1 or PARP2. Validation of the assay was achieved by showing that the growth inhibition was relieved by a mutation in a single residue in the catalytic site of PARP1 or PARP2 or exposure of yeast to a known PARP1 inhibitor, 6(5H)-phenanthridinone. In separate experiments, when a putative protein regulator of PARP activity, human poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase, was coexpressed with PARP1 or PARP2, yeast growth was restored. Finally, the inhibitors identified by screening the yeast assay are active in a mammalian PARP biochemical assay and inhibit PARP1 and PARP2 activity in yeast cell extracts. Thus, our data reflect the strength of using yeast to identify small molecule inhibitors of therapeutically relevant gene families, including those that are not found in yeast, such as PARP. The resultant inhibitors have two critical uses (a) as leads for drug development and (b) as tools to dissect cellular function.     

The potential for poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors in cancer therapy

The modulation of DNA repair pathways for therapeutic benefit in cancer has now become a reality with the development of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors (PARPi). PARP is involved in single-strand DNA breaks, which in the presence of defective homologous recombination repair lead to double-strand DNA breaks, the most lethal form of DNA damage. These agents therefore may be the drugs of choice for BRCA mutant breast and ovarian cancers. PARPi result in synergistic antitumor effects when combined with cisplatin, temozolomide, topoisomerase inhibitors and ionizing radiation. The indications for PARPi lie beyond BRCA mutations and may include genomic and functional defects in DNA repair and damage response pathways. Several PARPi are in the clinical development phase at this time and, given the recent failure of a phase III clinical trial of iniparib in triple-negative breast cancer, the identification of structural and functional differences between these inhibitors becomes critical. Acquired resistance to PARPi is being noted and represents an important limitation in this field. A concise review of the literature in this field is presented.     

Inhibition of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) induces apoptosis in lung cancer cell lines

We have tested PJ34, a potent inhibitor of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), against various lung cancer cell lines (Calu-6, A549, and H460) and normal human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs). While using WST1 dye assay, lung cancer cells exhibited LD(50) values of approximately 30 μM PJ34 (72-hr assay). Molecular data showed that the effect of PJ34-induced apoptosis on lung cancer cells occurs via a caspase-dependent pathway. The present study has clearly shown that (a) PARP inhibitor can independently kill tumor cells, (b) caspase-3 has modest influence on PARP-inhibitor-mediated cancer-specific toxicity, and (c) a pan-caspase inhibitor decreases the apoptotic effect of PJ34.     

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors: Exploiting a synthetic lethal strategy in the clinic

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) is an attractive antitumor target because of its vital role in DNA repair. The homologous recombination (HR) DNA repair pathway is critical for the repair of DNA double-strand breaks and HR deficiency leads to a dependency on error-prone DNA repair mechanisms, with consequent genomic instability and oncogenesis. Tumor-specific HR defects may be exploited through a synthetic lethal approach for the application of anticancer therapeutics, including PARP inhibitors. This theory proposes that targeting genetically defective tumor cells with a specific molecular therapy that inhibits its synthetic lethal gene partner should result in selective tumor cell killing. The demonstration of single-agent antitumor activity and the wide therapeutic index of PARP inhibitors in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers with advanced cancers provide strong evidence for the clinical application of this approach. Emerging data also indicate that PARP inhibitors may be effective in sporadic cancers bearing HR defects, supporting a substantially wider role for PARP inhibitors. Drugs targeting this enzyme are now in pivotal clinical trials in patients with sporadic cancers. In this article, the evidence supporting this antitumor synthetic lethal strategy with PARP inhibitors is reviewed, evolving resistance mechanisms and potential molecular predictive biomarker assays are discussed, and the future development of these agents is envisioned.     

PARP抑制剂的临床研究进展

肿瘤细胞对化疗药物耐药是导致化疗失败的重要原因。肿瘤细胞DNA修复基因的过表达引起DNA损伤后修复并最终导致了耐药性的产生。聚腺苷酸二磷酸核糖基聚合酶（PARP）是具有碱基切除修复功能的DNA单链损伤修复酶,由于其在肿瘤细胞内过表达并在肿瘤细胞DNA损伤修复过程中发挥着重要作用,被认为是肿瘤靶向治疗领域的重要靶点。近年来关于PARP抑制剂的研究屡见报道,发现PARP抑制剂不仅对放化疗具有一定的增敏效果,且在特定基因型瘤种中还具有显著的单独抗肿瘤效应。本文旨在对近年来PARP抑制剂的最新临床研究进展进行综述。     

聚腺苷二磷酸核糖聚合酶抑制剂联合放疗研究进展

聚腺苷二磷酸核糖聚合酶(PARP)作为DNA损伤的感受器广泛参与体内如DNA损伤修复等多种细胞活动,PARP抑制剂则可以通过抑制PARP的功能从而影响细胞一系列的细胞活动而成为当前研究的热点。目前多个体内外实验结果显示PARP抑制剂联合放疗可有效增强放疗疗效,本文就PARP 抑制剂的原理及其联合放疗的研究进展进行综述。     

Some protease inhibitors are also inhibitors of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase

The low-molecular-weight peptide protease inhibitors, tosyllysine-chloromethylketone, antipain and leupeptin, inhibited poly(ADP-ribose) [poly(ADP-Rib)]polymerase in permeable cells. The concentrations required for50% inhibition were 3.6, 5 and 29 mM, respectively. Two peptideswithout protease inhibitor activity, fibrinopeptide A and phenylalanineleucine-(glutamine)₂-leucine,also inhibited poly(ADP-Rib) synthesis; doses required for 50%inhibition were 0.37 and 11.2 mM, respectively. These concentrationslie within a range bracketed by the 50% inhibition concentrationsof the strong and weak poly(ADP-Rib) synthesis inhibitors, 3-aminobenzamide(0.15 mM) and caffeine (> 100 mM), respectively. N-Ethylmaleimidealso inhibited poly(ADP-Rib) synthesis, at a 50% inhibitorydose of 0.3 mM, in the absence of exogenous thiol reagents.High-molecular-weight protease inhibitors, such as soybean (includingBowman-Birk reagent) and lima bean trypsin inhibitors and human₁-protease inhibitor, had no effect on poly(ADP-Rib) synthesisup to 2 mg/ml. Interference with transformation and other cellulareffects that have been reported in carcinogen-damaged cellstreated with low-molecular-weight peptide protease inhibitorsmay therefore involve common mechanisms with poly(ADP-Rib) inhibitors.Similar effects of high-molecular-weight protease inhibitorspresumably involve different mechanisms.     

Targeting poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase: a two-armed strategy for cancer therapy.

The DNA repair pathways are protective of the host genome in normal cells; however, in cancer cells, these pathways may be disrupted and predispose to tumorigenesis or their activity may overcome the potentially cytotoxic damage caused by anticancer agents and be a mechanism of resistance. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors, which block base excision repair of single-strand breaks, have entered the clinic in the last few years. This article discusses the interactions between the pathways of single- and double-strand break repair, which explain the two clinical development strategies for this class of drugs.     

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors in cancer treatment: A clinical perspective

Inbuilt mechanisms of DNA surveillance and repair are integral to the maintenance of genomic stability. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) is a nuclear enzyme that plays a critical role in DNA damage response processes. PARP inhibition has been successfully employed as a novel therapeutic strategy to enhance the cytotoxic effects of DNA-damaging agents. We have shown that PARP inhibition has substantial single agent antitumour activity with a wide therapeutic index in homologous DNA repair-defective tumours such as those arising in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. This is the first successful clinical application of a synthetic lethal approach to targeting cancer. Exploitation of defects in DNA repair pathways through targeted inhibition of salvage repair pathways is an exciting anticancer approach, with potentially broad clinical applicability. Several PARP inhibitors are now in clinical development. This review outlines the biological function and rationale of targeting PARP, details pre-clinical and clinical data and discusses the promises and challenges involved in developing these antitumour agents.     

Deletion in poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase pseudogene and lung cancer risk

The poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase (PADPRP) gene has been implicated in carcinogenesis through its role in DNA repair, replication and recombination. A two-allele polymorphism in the chromosome 13 PADPRP pseudogene has been studied in several racial groups. It has been suggested that the B allele, which results from a 193-bp deletion in the gene, predisposes to myeloma in Blacks. We assessed the association between chromosome 13 PADPRP pseudogene genotype, mutagen sensitivity (a marker reflecting host DNA repair capability), cigarette smoking, and lung cancer risk in a minority lung cancer case-control study. The chromosome 13 PADPRP pseudogene polymorphism was detected by polymerase chain reaction-based analysis. Mutagen sensitivity was measured by an in vitro assay that quantified bleomycin-induced chromatid breaks in peripheral blood lymphocyte cultures. We examined 121 cases (80 African- Americans and 41 Mexican-Americans) with previously untreated lung cancer and 171 matched controls. Our results suggested that the distribution of the PADPRP pseudogene genotype frequencies was significantly different among African-American and Mexican-American controls (P < 0.001). The susceptibility genotype (i.e. at least one B allele) was found in 82.5% of African-American cases, 79.4% of African- American controls, 53.7% of Mexican-American cases, and 32.4% of Mexican-American controls. The odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals for the PADPRP susceptibility genotypes were 2.3 (95% CI = 0.7-8.0) and 3.2 (95% CI = 1.0-10.3) for African-Americans and Mexican- Americans respectively, after adjustment by age, sex, pack-years and mutagen sensitivity. Patients with the susceptibility genotype appeared to have more mutagen-induced breaks than did patients with the other genotype. Only adenocarcinoma was significantly associated with the PADPRP susceptibility genotype (OR = 3.8). Mutagen sensitivity (> or = 1 break/cell) was significantly associated with lung cancer risk for both ethnic groups with increased ORs of above three-fold. On stratified analysis, synergistic interactions were noted for the PADPRP susceptibility genotype, mutagen sensitivity and smoking status. In Mexican-Americans, the ORs for PADPRP susceptibility genotype, mutagen sensitivity and both risk factors combined were 1.3, 2.7 and 17.1 respectively. The combined OR for the PADPRP susceptibility genotype and smoking status was 15.6. Therefore, this polymorphism appears to be associated with lung cancer risk. However, it is likely that no single genotype is sufficiently predictive of risk and that a panel of susceptibility markers is needed to define the high-risk subgroup.      

Current development of clinical inhibitors of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase in oncology.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) is a nuclear enzyme that signals the presence of DNA damage by catalyzing the addition of ADP-ribose units to DNA, histones, and various DNA repair enzymes and by facilitating DNA repair. PARP has been gaining increasing interest as a therapeutic target for many diseases and especially for cancer. Inhibition of PARP potentiates the activity of DNA-damaging agents, such as alkylators, platinums, topoisomerase inhibitors, and radiation in in vitro and in vivo models. In addition, tumors with DNA repair defects, such as those arising from patients with BRCA mutations, may be more sensitive to PARP inhibition. At least five different companies have now initiated oncology clinical trials with PARP inhibitors, ranging in stage from phase 0 to phase 2. This review summarizes the preclinical and clinical data currently available for these agents and some of the challenges facing the clinical development of these agents.     

Use of poly ADP-ribose polymerase [PARP] inhibitors in cancer cells bearing DDR defects: the rationale for their inclusion in the clinic

Background

DNA damage response (DDR) defects imply genomic instability and favor tumor progression but make the cells vulnerable to the pharmacological inhibition of the DNA repairing enzymes. Targeting cellular proteins like PARPs, which cooperate and complement molecular defects of the DDR process, induces a specific lethality in DDR defective cancer cells and represents an anti-cancer strategy. Normal cells can tolerate the DNA damage generated by PARP inhibition because of an efficient homologous recombination mechanism (HR); in contrast, cancer cells with a deficient HR are unable to manage the DSBs and appear especially sensitive to the PARP inhibitors (PARPi) effects.

Main body

In this review we discuss the proof of concept for the use of PARPi in different cancer types and the success and failure of their inclusion in clinical trials.The PARP inhibitor Olaparib [AZD2281] has been approved by the FDA for use in pretreated ovarian cancer patients with defective BRCA1/2 genes, and by the EMEA for maintenance therapy in platinum sensitive ovarian cancer patients with defective BRCA1/2 genes. BRCA mutations are now recognised as the molecular targets for PARPi sensitivity in several tumors. However, it is noteworthy that the use of PARPi has shown its efficacy also in non-BRCA related tumors. Several trials are ongoing to test different PARPi in different cancer types. Here we review the concept of BRCAness and the functional loss of proteins involved in DDR/HR mechanisms in cancer, including additional molecules that can influence the cancer cells sensitivity to PARPi. Given the complexity of the existing crosstalk between different DNA repair pathways, it is likely that a single biomarker may not be sufficient to predict the benefit of PARP inhibitors therapies. Novel general assays able to predict the DDR/HR proficiency in cancer cells and the PARPi sensitivity represent a challenge for a personalized therapy.

Conclusions

PARP inhibition is a potentially important strategy for managing a significant subset of tumors. The discovery of both germline and somatic DNA repair deficiencies in different cancer patients, together with the development of new PARP inhibitors that can kill selectively cancer cells is a potent example of targeting therapy to molecularly defined tumor subtypes.

     

PARP抑制剂抗肿瘤治疗研究进展

聚ADP核糖聚合酶（PARP）在DNA损伤修复、维持基因组稳定性方面起着重要作用。因此PARP抑制剂能够抑制肿瘤细胞DNA损伤修复、增强肿瘤细胞DNA对损伤因素的敏感性。近年来PARP抑制剂的研究受到了越来越多的关注。PARP抑制剂单药可以在具有某些基因突变的肿瘤中发挥合成致死作用,与化疗或放疗联合能够增加肿瘤细胞对化疗或放疗的敏感性。PARP抑制剂有望在肿瘤治疗领域中发挥重要作用。     

Poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase (PARP) Inhibitors: From Bench to Bedside

Poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase (PARP) inhibitors are a novel class of anticancer agents that target the DNA damage response pathways. The enzyme target, PARP, plays a key role in signalling DNA single-strand breaks. Clinical development to date has focused on their potential role in combination with DNA-damaging chemotherapy, where efficacy has been limited by enhanced normal tissue toxicity, and as single agents in the context of synthetic lethality. This article reviews these data in the context of future development as radio-potentiating agents.     

Chromosome 13 poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase polymorphisms and lung cancer risk

A 193 base pair repeat polymorphism in the human poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PADPRP) pseudogene found on chromosome 13 has been associated with lung cancer, endemic Burkitt lymphoma, B-cell lymphoma, breast cancer and colorectal carcinoma. We investigated the frequency of the PADPRP genetic polymorphism in a hospital-based case-control study of lung cancer for 54 cases and 47 controls. There was a statistically significant difference in allelic frequency between Caucasians and African Americans (p<0.001). For African Americans, the odds ratio for lung cancer and the 'B' allele was 2.38 (95% C.I.=0.73, 7.69) and for Caucasians 0.44 (95% C.I.=0.11, 1.77). The results for the African Americans, however, were not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, although the Caucasians were. Thus, this study, albeit small, does not find that the PADPRP pseudogene duplicated region located on chromosome 13 is a risk factor for lung cancer.