Tip position of long-term central venous access devices used for parenteral nutrition

BACKGROUND: Venous thrombosis is a potential postplacement complication of a central venous access device (VAD). Improper catheter tip position is a predisposing factor, especially when the device is used to administer parenteral nutrition (PN). American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (A.S.P.E.N.) guidelines recommend that a central VAD used for PN be placed with its tip in the superior vena cava (SVC) adjacent to the right atrium (RA). The purpose of this study is to determine the prevalence of improper central VAD tip position and factors associated with malpositioning. METHODS: All adult patients with a longterm VAD (ie, tunneled central venous catheter, peripherally inserted central catheter [PICC], or implanted port) placed before the current admission who were scheduled to receive PN also received chest x-rays to evaluate position of the catheter tip. Position was determined by a staff radiologist. A catheter with its tip ranging from the middle third of the SVC to the RA was considered acceptable; a catheter with its tip in any other position was considered malpositioned. Subjects with multiple VADs or multiple evaluations for the same catheter had the first placement and last evaluation considered. A logistic regression analysis was used to study the univariable and multivariable associations of these factors with tip malposition. RESULTS: Data were collected for catheters in 124 patients, including 74 tunneled catheters (71 Hickman, 2 Broviac, 1 Groshong), 38 PICCs, and implanted ports. Most of the catheters were placed for (81.9%) or chemotherapy (14.5%). Median catheter duration was 1.6 months at time of evaluation. Of 138 catheters studied, 15.9% (95% confidence interval, 10.2-23.1) were malpositioned at time of evaluation. According to univariable analysis, factors associated with malpositioned catheters included shorter catheter duration (p = .001), greater number of lumens (p = .029), venous entry site on the arm (p <.001) and catheters placed at institutions other than Cleveland Clinic (p = .007). Additionally, PICCs were likely to be malpositioned at time of evaluation compared with other long-term VADs combined (34.2% vs 9.0%; p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: A high percentage of long-term VADs improperly positioned for PN in the present study. were more likely to be malpositioned at time of evaluation compared with tunneled catheters and implanted These findings suggest the tip position of long-term should be confirmed before infusing PN.     

Catheter thrombosis and superior/inferior vena cava syndrome are rare complications of long term parenteral nutrition

The objective of this study was to determine the incidence of catheter thrombosis and superior/inferior vena cava (SVC IVC ) syndrome in a large population of patients receiving home total parenteral nutrition (TPN), using retrospective data collection and analysis. 527 patients including 138 children who were discharged on home TPN and followed in the UCLA home TPN program for a minimum of one week between April, 1973 and October, 1991. There was a total of 1154 years of patients follow-up, including 241 years in children. Fifty-seven patients (11%) developed 81 episodes of catheter thrombosis excluding SVC IVC syndrome with an incidence of 0.07 episodes per catheter year. The median catheter duration prior to thrombosis was 7 months. Twenty-one thromboses occured in children with an incidence of 0.09 per catheter year. Eleven percent of thrombotic episodes were associated with catheter sepsis. Thirty-nine percent of patients had a PTT less than control values. Twenty-two patients including 6 children developed SVC IVC syndrome with an incidence of 0.02 per catheter year. SVC IVC syndrome was not associated with catheter sepsis in any patient. Sixty-eight percent of patients had catheter thrombosis at some point prior to developing SVC IVC syndrome. It is concluded that catheter-related thrombotic events are rare complications of home TPN and are uncommonly associated with infection. However, we recommend warfarin anticoagulation following an initial thrombotic event, in the absence of catheter malposition, for all such patients as long as they maintain a central venous catheter.     

新型静脉内心电图用于左锁骨下静脉穿刺置管的研究

目的进一步总结新型静脉内心电图（NVECG）在左锁骨下静脉穿刺置管过程中出现的波形规律性。方法选择100例行择期左侧开胸手术的患者,气管插管全身麻醉后行左锁骨下静脉穿刺置管,穿刺成功后将定位导线的两端分别连接导引钢丝和心电图LL电极。在推进静脉导管与导引钢丝时观察NVECG,记录出现p-rRs波（锯齿波）和深大倒P和Q波（W波）时的导管深度。出现W波后,继续将导管尖端推进,记录P波变为双相或正向时的导管深度,再外退导管至出现W波。所有患者术中均由术者用手探查静脉导管尖端在心脏的位置,术后检查X线胸片判断导管尖端位置。结果 100例患者中有96例在置管过程中出现W波,当中有90例由术者探查证实导管尖端位于上腔静脉心房入口上2cm处,术后X线判断导管尖端均位于上腔静脉,预测导管到位率为93.8%。出现锯齿波、W波、正向P波和再次出现W波的导管平均深度分别为7.8cm（7.5～12cm）、16.2cm（14～20cm）、20.1cm（17～22cm）和16.2cm（14～20cm）。结论新型静脉内心电图用于左锁骨下静脉穿刺置管定位具有较高的准确性及简易性,非常适合在临床工作中推广。     

Assessment of distal tip position of long-term central venous feeding catheters using transesophageal echocardiology

BACKGROUND: Central vein catheter position is a vital element in promoting longevity and minimizing adverse events associated with long-term parenteral nutrition. Traditionally, position has been verified using a chest radiograph. However, this mode of assessment has limitations as the catheter is placed in a dynamic system subject to forces from changes in posture and diaphragmatic movement. METHODS: We compared the reported position using a chest x-ray compared with assessment using transesophageal echocardiology (TOE) in 9 patients receiving home parenteral nutrition. The x-ray was reported by a radiologist unaware of the study. RESULTS: There were discordant results in 7 of the 9 cases with catheter tip placed in the right atrium or impinging in the tricuspid valve which was not evident from the chest x-ray. TOE offered greater information of catheter tip position and relationship to adjacent anatomy. CONCLUSIONS: Further work is required but this observational study suggests guidelines suggesting the use of a chest radiograph to confirm catheter position may need to be re-assessed.     

Complications and cost associated with parenteral nutrition delivered to hospitalized patients through either subclavian or peripherally-inserted central catheters

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Total parenteral nutrition (TPN) is typically delivered through catheters inserted into the superior vena cava (SVC) via a subclavian or internal jugular vein approach. A peripherally-inserted central venous catheter (PICC), utilizing a cephalic or basilic venous approach, may provide a safe alternative to the standard catheter approach and, because non-physician providers can insert the PICC, may introduce a potential cost-savings to health care institutions. We sought to determine if PICC lines are safer and more cost-effective than the standard central venous catheter approach for hospitalized patients who require TPN. METHODS: One hundred and two hospitalized patients (age range, 18-88 years) who required TPN were prospectively randomized to receive therapy via a centrally-inserted subclavian catheter (n=51) or a peripherally-inserted PICC line (n=51). The primary end-point was the development of a complication requiring catheter removal. Other end-points included catheter infection and thrombophlebitis. Cost associated with insertion and maintenance of each catheter was also studied. RESULTS: Complication-free delivery rate (without the need to remove or replace the catheter) was 67% for subclavian catheters and 46% for PICC lines (P<0.05). The overall infection rate was 4.9 per 1000 catheter days and was similar for each catheter type (P=0.68). PICC lines were associated with higher rates of clinically-evident thrombophlebitis (P<0.01), difficult insertion attempts (P<0.05), and malposition on insertion (P<0.05). No catheter complications resulted in significant long-term morbity or mortality. No significant difference was noted between the two catheter types in terms of aborted insertion attempts (P=0.18), dislodgement (P=0.12), or line occlusion (P=0.25). After standardizing costs for each hospital, the direct institutional costs for insertion and maintenance of PICC lines (US$22.32+/-2.74 per day) was greater than that for subclavian lines (US$16.20+/-2.96 per day;P<0.05). CONCLUSION: PICC catheters have higher thrombophlebitis rates and are more difficult to insert into certain patients when compared to the standard subclavian approach for central venous access in hospitalized patients who require TPN. Because of this, PICCs may be less cost-effective than currently believed because of the difficulty in inserting and maintaining the catheter.     

Spontaneous migration of long-term indwelling venous catheters

Our institution recently encountered two patients with an unusual complication of indwelling catheters, spontaneous migration of the catheter tip. Both patients had indwelling subcutaneous ports placed via the left subclavian vein into the superior vena cava for the treatment of breast cancer. Both catheters functioned well but were noted on follow-up radiographs to have repositioned themselves, one into the azygous vein and the other into the internal jugular vein. One patient required surgical intervention to properly position the catheter for further chemotherapy. Chest roentgenograms are indicated to confirm the continued appropriate position of indwelling catheters when their position is in doubt to minimize the likelihood of complications associated with delivery of caustic chemotherapeutic agents in low flow vessels.     

2 206例中心静脉置管在血液透析中的应用

目的 探讨中心静脉置管（CVT）在血液透析中的应用.方法 回顾性分析2 206例CVT患者的临床资料,观察导管穿刺部位、导管留置时间、4周血流通畅率、导管相关性感染发生率等.结果 颈内静脉留置2 033例,股静脉留置173例.颈内静脉导管留置时间为（40.6±32.7）d,股静脉导管留置时间为（22.4± 16.3）d,二者差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）.颈内静脉留置导管4周血流通畅率96.4％（1 959/2 033）,明显高于股静脉的83.2％（144/173）,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）.股静脉导管相关性感染发生率为11.0％（19/173）,显著高于颈内静脉的3.6％（73/2 033）,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）.结论 应用CVT行血液透析便捷可靠,感染率低,并发症较少,操作技术水平是成功的关键.     

Prehepatic total parenteral nutrition in the chair-adapted primate

The relative efficacy of prehepatic and central venous infusion of total parenteral nutrition (TPN) was evaluated in a chair-adapted primate model. Four adult male monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) underwent surgical placement of a silastic catheter in both the portal vein (PV) and superior vena cava (SVC). Following recovery (10 days), each animal received two courses of TPN (100 kcal and 4 g of protein/kg/day) for 10 days each via the PV and SVC in an alternating crossover manner. The prehepatic (PV) infusion of TPN in the well nourished, chair-adapted primate results in maintenance of weight (PV: delta - 0.07 kg; SVC:delta - 0.07 kg), nitrogen equilibrium (PV:+ 0.8 g N/day; SVC: + 0.7 g N/day), and trends in serum albumin (PV:delta - 0.35 g %; SVC: delta - 0.38 g %), and total iron binding capacity (PV:delta + 44 mg %; SVC:delta + 8.67 mg %) comparable to the SVC route. No significant abnormalities in liver enzyme production were observed with either route of infusion. Whole body protein synthesis rates using 15N-glycine tracer were likewise comparable (PV = 2.05 g N/kg/day; SVC = 2.18 g N/kg/day). Prehepatic delivery and primary hepatic modulation of substrates does not substantially improve the efficacy of parenteral nutrient administration. Intestinal modification of substrates may be the most important contributing factor in the supposed superiority of enteral alimentation.     

Location of central venous catheters in children by endocavitary ECG: A new technique

A new technique to establish the position of a central venous catheter (CVC) by endocavitary ECGraphy is described. The principle is based on the fact that the catheter itself may be considered as an electrical conductor by means of its liquid content (saline solution), therefore acting as an exploring electrode. The intrinsic deflection of the P wave shows the proper position of the CVC tip at the sinus node level. The technique has been successfully utilised in 52 children needing antineoplastic chemotherapy and/or total parenteral nutrition, thus avoiding chest X-ray control, which is troublesome and potentially harmful in neonates and infants.     

PICC置管错位于胸外侧静脉原因分析与对策

目的:探讨PICC置管错位于胸外侧静脉的原因和处理.方法:回顾性分析该院254例PICC置管的临床资料,通过比较找出造成3例导管错位于胸外侧静脉的可能因素.结果:PICC错位于胸外侧静脉的可能因素有:穿刺血管选择:体位:血管畸形及操作因素.错位后1例拔管、2例在X线引导下进行调整成功.结论:PICC置管时应针对错位发生的相关因素进行防范,置管后应常规进行导管头端定位,错位于胸外侧静脉时可在X线引导下正位获得成功.     

Timeline of Cellulitis and Late Development of Hydrothorax Induced by a Right‐Sided Central Venous Catheter

We reported a case of 27‐year‐old woman who suffered a hydrothorax induced by a central venous catheter that had been placed to facilitate parenteral nutrition. The central venous catheter was inserted into the superior vena cava through the right subclavian vein. Chest radiograph after insertion revealed proper position of the tip. After a few days, the patient developed acute cellulitis of the right breast, and intravenous antibiotics were started. Four days later, 10 days after the insertion of the catheter, the patient suddenly developed dyspnea and tachycardia. Computed tomography scan of the chest showed massive pleural effusion in the right thorax and a mediastinal shift; the tip of the catheter had perforated the superior vena cava and was located in the right pleural space. Thoracic and subcutaneous drainage showed a fluid similar to parenteral nutrition. The continuous mechanical force of the catheter tip against the superior vena cava wall in combination with a hyperosmolar solution was considered to be the cause of the acute cellulitis and a delayed hydrothorax.     

Hub Colonization as the Initial Step in an Outbreak of Catheter-Related Sepsis Due to Coagulase Negative Staphylococci during Parenteral Nutrition

A prospective study was carried out to determine the pathogenesis of coagulase negative staphylococci catheter-related sepsis during parenteral nutrition. Forty-three catheters were cultured by semiquantitative and quantitative methods. The skin around the puncture site was cultured at the time of catheter removal and three segments of the catheter were cultured apart: the hub, the proximal subcutaneous segment, and the tip. Skin cultures were negative (89%) or yielded different coagulase negative staphylococci from those recovered in catheter and/or blood. Seventeen catheters were the source of sepsis. In 15 cases an infected hub was associated with an infected tip. In two cases the hub was negative (one sepsis due to mixture contamination and the other due to hematogenous seeding of the catheter tip). Sixteen cases of sepsis were due to coagulase negative staphylococci. Staphylococcus epidermidis has been the species most commonly isolated, followed by Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, and Staphylococcus hominis. In our patients most catheter sepsis have their origin in an infected hub and are not due to migration of skin bacteria along catheter subcutaneous tunnel. (Journal of Parenternal and Enteral Nutrition 8:668–672, 1984)     

Implication of a distant septic focus in parenteral nutrition catheter colonization

During a 4-year period, 244 surgical patients receiving total parenteral nutrition (TPN) were studied with emphasis on the relationship between TPN catheter colonization and a preexisting distant septic focus (DSF). A colonized catheter was defined as a catheter with a positive semiquantitative culture of the catheter tip (greater than or equal to 15 colonies on the plate). Catheter-related sepsis (CRS) was defined as a catheter with either the same organisms cultured from the catheter tip and from blood or with defervescence following catheter removal. Two hundred sixty-nine catheters were inserted for TPN for a total of 4433 patient days, with a mean length of stay of 16.5 days. Forty-two of the 269 catheters (15.6%) were colonized and more than half (57.1%) of the organisms cultured were Gram-negative bacilli or enterococci. Nineteen of the 42 colonized catheters were associated with CRS with a CRS rate of 7.1% among the 269 catheters. A DSF was present in 165 of the 244 patients or in 188 of the 269 catheters (69.9%). The colonization rate of 19.1% (36/188) in those catheters with DSF was significantly higher than that of 7.4% (6/81) in those without DSF (p less than 0.05). Those patients with DSF or with a colonized catheter were associated with a high mortality (p less than 0.001). Sepsis was responsible for 33 of the 48 patients (68.8%) who died. The data stress the important contribution of DSF to the colonization of TPN catheters and to the mortality of these critically ill surgical patients.     

Semiquantitative culture of subcutaneous segment for conservative diagnosis of intravascular catheter-related infection

BACKGROUND: Sensitivity and negative predictive values of combined surface cultures (skin and hub) are high in the presumptive diagnosis of catheter-related infection, but specificity and PPVs are poor. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the yield of the semiquantitative culture of the subcutaneous segment in the diagnosis of colonization of the catheter tip without removal of the catheter. METHODS: A prospective study was performed in 124 nontunneled central venous catheters that were removed because of suspected infection or the end of therapy. Catheter colonization was considered if >15 colony-forming units (CFU) in the roll procedure or > 1,000 CFU in the quantitative Cleri procedure were recovered from the tip cultures ("gold standard"). Before removing the catheter, a semiquantitative culture of skin surrounding the point of insertion, a semiquantitative culture of the subcutaneous segment (after removing the catheter only 2 cm), a semiquantitative cultures of the hub, and a pareated quantitative blood culture were performed. Receiver operating characteristic curves were calculated to estimate the cutoff points, and a culture was considered positive when CFUs were > or =15, > or =15, and > or =5 for skin, hub, and subcutaneous segment cultures, respectively. RESULTS: Catheter colonization was detected in 51 catheters. The mean duration of catheterization was 14 +/- 8 days, and the rates of incidence of tip colonization and bacteremia were 2.9 per 100 catheter days and 1.2 per 100 catheter days, respectively. Sensitivity of skin, subcutaneous, and hub cultures analyzed individually were < or =61%; however, specificity and positive predictive values (PPVs) of subcutaneous segment cultures were significantly higher than skin cultures (94% and 88.5% vs 71.6% (p = .001) and 62% (p = .014), respectively). Sensitivity of the combined skin and hub cultures and of the combined subcutaneous segment and hub cultures were similar: 86.2% and 84.3%, respectively; however, specificity and PPVs of this latter combination were significantly higher than former: 82% and 78.1% vs 59.7% (p = .008) and 61.9% (p = .07), respectively. The likelihood ratio of a positive test for the combined subcutaneous segment and hub culture was 4.68, and only 2.13 for the combined skin and hub culture. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that the combined subcutaneous segment and hub culture constitutes an easy, effective procedure for the conservative diagnosis of catheter colonization.     

Efficacy of antiseptic-impregnated catheters on catheter colonization and catheter-related bloodstream infections in patients in an intensive care unit

This study was conducted to evaluate the impact of central venous catheters impregnated with chlorhexidine and silver sulphadiazine on the incidence of colonization and catheter-related bloodstream infection in critically ill patients. One hundred and thirty-three patients requiring central venous catheterization were chosen at random to receive either an antiseptic-impregnated triple-lumen catheter (N=64) or a standard triple-lumen catheter (N=69). The mean (SD) durations of catheterization for the antiseptic and standard catheters were 11.7 (5.8) days (median 10; range 3-29) and 8.9 (4.6) days (median 8.0; range 3-20), respectively (P=0.006). Fourteen (21.9%) of the antiseptic catheters and 14 (20.3%) of the standard catheters had been colonized at the time of removal (P=0.834). Four cases (6.3%) of catheter-related bloodstream infection were associated with antiseptic catheters and one case (1.4%) was associated with a standard catheter (P=0.195). The catheter colonization rates were 18.7/1000 catheter-days for the antiseptic catheter group and 22.6/1000 catheter-days for the standard catheter group (P=0.640). The catheter-related bloodstream infection rates were 5.3/1000 catheter-days for the antiseptic catheter group and 1.6/1000 catheter-days for the standard catheter group (P=0.452). In conclusion, our results indicate that the use of antiseptic-impregnated central venous catheters has no effect on the incidence of either catheter colonization or catheter-related bloodstream infection in critically ill patients.     

放疗模拟定位机在PICC导管异位中的应用

目的：探讨放疗模拟定位机在PICC导管异位中的应用价值。方法：将56例患者异位入颈外静脉、右心房、锁骨下静脉、腋静脉及头臂静脉的导管,在放疗模拟定位机下进行机下调管。正位后应用计算机的可视功能确定导管头端是否位于上腔静脉．记录正位后导管头端的位置及成功率。结果：56例导管异位患者中,除2例血管畸形者,正位成功率为85．2％。结论：放疗模拟定位机是一种实用、直观、简便、科学的用于PICC导管异位后正位的机器,值得临床推广。     

Les thromboses veineuses en nutrition parentérale à domicile : de la prévention au traitement

The objective of this review is to summarize the literature and to look at epidemiology, prevention and treatment of catheter-associated venous thrombosis in home parenteral nutrition patients. The rate of this complication is between 0.01 to 0.03 episodes per catheter year. Several risk factors have been identified, such as the position of the catheter tip, the type of material used and a history of catheter-associated infections. Systematic anticoagulant prophylaxis has largely been ineffective. Good insertion technique and catheter cares remain important preventives measures. Moreover, the optimal anticoagulant treatment is unclear due to lack of well-designed studies. In case of catheter-associated venous thrombosis in home parenteral nutrition patients, removal of the catheter is not mandatory. If it is functional, necessary and without associated infection, long-term systemic anticoagulation will be indicated.     

Investigational use of tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) for occluded central venous catheters

Urokinase and streptokinase are commonly used thrombolytic agents for fibrin obstructed central venous catheters. Although proven to be efficacious, these two agents have the potential to induce systemic fibrin breakdown and hemorrhage. We report our initial experience with tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) for the treatment of occluded central venous catheters which failed urokinase. Of 25 incidents of catheter occlusion in 142 right atrial catheters, six failed to clear after an initial bolus dwell of urokinase. Five of these six catheters cleared following treatment with 2 mg/2 cc of t-PA with a mean of 1.5 bolus installations. The one catheter failure was due to catheter tip position and age of clot. No coagulation abnormalities or bleeding was observed. These data suggest that t-PA may be a safe, effective thrombolytic agent in the treatment of occluded central venous catheters.     

Central venous catheter replacement with the aid of wire introducer in patients receiving total parenteral nutrition: short report

During a 1-year period, 24 of 71 patients receiving total parenteral nutrition, underwent replacement of their central venous catheter (CVC) for presumed CVC sepsis or catheter malposition with the use of a wire inducer, according to the Seldinger technique. Catheters were defined as sterile when cultures of both the catheter tip and the peripheral blood were negative, contaminated when culture of the tip was positive whereas the peripheral blood culture(s) was either sterile or positive with different bacteria than those obtained from the tip culture, and septic when cultures from the catheter tip and peripheral blood grew identical microorganisms. Among 19 catheters with suspected sepsis, six were sterile, ten contaminated and three septic. Guidewire catheter replacement was easily and safely performed, and succeeded in sterilizing all contaminated catheters but only one of three septic catheters.