Effects of selective phosphodiesterase inhibitors on the polymorphonuclear leukocyte respiratory burst

Modulation of the human polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMN) respiratory burst by selective cyclic 3',5' adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors was studied with respect to PDE isozyme characteristics. Zaprinast, an inhibitor of a cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-specific PDE (PDE I), at concentrations up to 100 mumol/L, had no significant effect on the respiratory burst. Milrinone and imazodan, inhibitors of cAMP-metabolizing, cGMP-sensitive PDE (PDE III), reduced the respiratory burst to 60% of control magnitude but only had significant effects when they were introduced at high (100 mumol/L) concentrations. In contrast, rolipram and RO 20-1724, inhibitors of a cAMP-metabolizing, cGMP-insensitive PDE (PDE IV), had significant effects at low concentrations (0.1 mumol/L) and caused marked reduction of the respiratory burst at higher concentrations (25% of control at 10 mumol/L). The selective PDE IV inhibitors significantly potentiated PMN inhibition by isoproterenol. Diethylaminoethyl (DEAE)-Sepharose chromatography demonstrated a predominant PDE isozyme with high affinity and selectivity for cAMP that was insensitive to cGMP and was completely inhibited by rolipram, a PDE IV inhibitor. These results are consistent with the conclusion that the PMN respiratory burst is inhibited by an elevation of cAMP induced by PDE IV inhibition.     

PDE4 inhibitors attenuate fibroblast chemotaxis and contraction of native collagen gels

Therapies that mitigate the fibrotic process may be able to slow progressive loss of function in many lung diseases. Because cyclic adenosine monophosphate is known to regulate fibroblasts, the current study was designed to evaluate the activity of selective phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors on two in vitro fibroblast responses: chemotaxis and contraction of three-dimensional collagen gels. Selective PDE4 inhibitors, rolipram and cilomilast, each inhibited the chemotaxis of human fetal lung fibroblasts (HFL-1) toward fibronectin in the blindwell assay system (control: 100% versus cilomilast [10 microM]: 40.5 +/- 7.3% versus rolipram: [10 microM] 32.1 +/- 2.7% cells/5 high-power fields; P < 0.05, both comparisons). These PDE4 inhibitors also inhibited contraction of three-dimensional collagen gels (control: 100% versus cilomilast: 167.7 +/- 6.9% versus rolipram: 129.9 +/- 1.9% of initial size; P < 0.05, both comparisons). Amrinone, a PDE3 inhibitor, and zaprinast, a PDE5 inhibitor, had no effect in either system. Prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) inhibited both chemotaxis and gel contraction, and the PDE4 inhibitors shifted the PGE(2) concentration-dependence curve to the left in both systems. The inhibition of endogenous PGE(2) production by indomethacin diminished the effects of the PDE4 inhibitors in both chemotaxis and gel contraction, consistent with the concept that the PDE4 inhibitory effects on fibroblasts are related to the presence of cyclic adenosine monophosphate in the cells. In summary, these in vitro results suggest that PDE4 inhibitors may be able to suppress fibroblast activity and, thus, have the potential to block the development of progressive fibrosis.     

Differential effect of phosphodiesterase inhibitors on IL-13 release from peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

Increased cyclic AMP (cAMP)-phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity in peripheral blood leucocytes is associated with the immunological inflammation that characterizes allergic diseases, such as atopic dermatitis and allergic rhinitis. Recently, it has been found that IL-13 has similar biological functions to IL-4. The aim of this study was to investigate the possible involvement of cAMP-PDE activity on IL-13 release from peripheral blood mononuclears cells (PBMC) from atopic asthma patients. Phytohaemagglutinin (PHA)-induced IL-13 release from PBMC was concentration-dependently inhibited by rolipram, a type 4 PDE inhibitor, as well as by dibutyryl cAMP, a membrane-permeant cAMP analogue. However, theophylline, a non-specific PDE inhibitor, and cilostazol, a type 3 PDE inhibitor, failed to inhibit IL-13 release. The inhibitory effect of rolipram was enhanced by the addition of forskolin (10(-4) m), an adenylyl cyclase stimulator. PHA itself did not alter the intracellular cAMP level. Rolipram concentration-dependently increased cAMP level in PHA-stimulated PBMC, and this increase was synergistically facilitated by the addition of forskolin (10(-4) m). These results suggest that type 4 PDE inhibitors, alone or synergistically in combination with forskolin, inhibit PHA-induced IL-13 release from PBMC of atopic asthma patients by elevating intracellular cAMP concentrations. These inhibitors have the potential to exert an anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting IL-13 production in allergic diseases such as atopic asthma.     

Enhanced tumor necrosis factor suppression and cyclic adenosine monophosphate accumulation by combination of phosphodiesterase inhibitors and prostanoids

We investigated cooperative effects of phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors and prostanoids on cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) accumulation and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α synthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). PDE inhibitors alone induced only a small increase in cAMP levels in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated PBMC. Cicaprost (a stable analogue of prostacyclin) and pentoxifylline added simultaneously to LPS-stimulated PBMC (2.0 × 10⁶/ml) induced a rapid increase of cAMP to a level of 100 nM that peaked within 10 min and remained at a plateau for up to 4 h. Thus combined prostanoids and PDE inhibitors enhanced cAMP accumulation. TNF-α suppression in the presence of pentoxifylline and prostanoids exceeded that of either drug alone. The potency of different PDE inhibitors (theophylline, pentoxifylline, penthy-droxifylline, albifylline, torbafylline, A 802715, amrinone and rolipram) to increase cAMP levels in combination with cicaprost was evaluated after 1 h of incubation. The dose-dependent increase of cAMP for all PDE inhibitors tested in this combined stimulation provided a useful tool for evaluating the potency of PDE inhibitors on cAMP accumulation. The effective concentration of PDE inhibitors, which raised cAMP levels to 300% of control, (EC³⁰⁰), correlated with the IC₅₀ for TNF-α suppression (r = 0.930, p = 0.007, with theophylline excluded from the analysis). Interestingly, by contrast, the specific type IV PDE inhibitor rolipram caused only a moderate rise of accumulated cAMP in the same cells. Our data support cAMP as an essential mediator for TNF-α suppression by PDE inhibitors. Furthermore, an enhanced inhibiting effect on TNF-α production may prove therapeutically advantageous. It may occur in inflammatory and infectious diseases in vivo, since high levels of endogenous prostaglandins are liberated in these conditions.     

Oxidative stress‐induced glucocorticoid resistance is prevented by dual PDE3/PDE4 inhibition in human alveolar macrophages

Background Oxidative stress is present in airway diseases such as severe asthma or Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and contributes to the low response to glucocorticoids through the down‐regulation of histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity. Objective To study the effects of the phosphodiesterase (PDE)‐3 and 4 inhibitors and their combination vs. glucocorticoids in a model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‐induced cytokine release in alveolar macrophages under oxidative stress conditions. Methods Differentiated U937 or human alveolar macrophages were stimulated with H₂O₂ (10–1000 μm ) or cigarette smoke extract (CSE, 0–15%) for 4 h before LPS (0.5 μg/mL, 24 h) addition. In other experiments, cells were pre‐treated with dexamethasone or budesonide (10^?9–10^?6 m ), with the PDE4 inhibitor rolipram (10^?9–10^?5 m ), PDE3 inhibitor motapizone (10 μm ), 3′,5′‐cyclic monophosphate enhancer PGE₂ (10 nm ), or with the combination of rolipram (10^?6 m )+PGE₂ (10 nm )+motapizone (10 μm ) 15 min before oxidants. IL‐8 and TNF‐α were measured by ELISA and HDAC activity by a colorimetric assay. Results Budesonide and dexamethasone produced a concentration‐dependent inhibition of the LPS‐induced IL‐8 and TNF‐α secretion with an E_max about 90% of inhibition, which was reduced by approximately 30% in the presence of H₂O₂ or CSE. Pre‐treatment with rolipram, motapizone or PGE2 only reached about 20% of inhibition but was not affected by oxidative stress. In contrast, PDE4/PDE3 combination in presence of PGE2 effectively inhibited the LPS‐induced cytokine secretion by about 90% and was not affected by oxidative stress. Combined PDE4 and PDE3 inhibition reversed glucocorticoid resistance under oxidative stress conditions. HDAC activity was reduced in the presence of oxidative stress, and in contrast to glucocorticoids, pre‐treatment with PDE4/PDE3 combination was able to prevent HDAC inactivity. Conclusions & Clinical Relevance This study shows that the combination of the PDE3/PDE4 inhibitors prevents alveolar macrophage activation in those situations of glucocorticoid resistance, which may be of potential interest to develop new effective anti‐inflammatory drugs in airway diseases. Cite this as: J. Milara, A. Navarro, P. Almudéver, J. Lluch, E. J. Morcillo and J. Cortijo, Clinical & Experimental Allergy, 2011 (41) 535–546.     

磷酸二酯酶4抑制剂咯利普兰逆转慢性酒精中毒及戒断诱导的小鼠抑郁样行为

目的:研究磷酸二酯酶4(PDE4)抑制剂咯利普兰对酒精中毒戒断诱导的抑郁样行为的作用及对小鼠海马和前额叶皮质脑区环磷酸腺苷(cAMP)、蛋白激酶A(PKA)、cAMP反应元件结合蛋白(CREB)、磷酸化CREB(p-CREB)和脑源性神经营养因子(BDNF)表达的影响。方法:取60只雄性ICR小鼠,随机分为空白对照组、空白+咯利普兰组、慢性酒精模型组和咯利普兰治疗组(0.1、0.5和1 mg/kg)。给予酒精28 d期间每周进行酒精戒断处理。慢性酒精处理后,进行强迫游泳测试(FST)和悬尾测试(TST),观察小鼠抑郁样行为;ELISA检测小鼠海马和前额叶皮质cAMP含量,Western blot检测小鼠海马和额叶皮质PKA、CREB、p-CREB和BDNF的表达。结果:随着饮酒天数及戒断次数的增加,小鼠表现出明显嗜酒现象,饮酒量增加(P0.01),FST和TST测试中的不动时间增加(P0.01)。小鼠给药咯利普兰(0.5和1 mg/kg)28 d后,FST和TST不动时间与模型组相比明显减少(P0.05),且能改善小鼠的嗜酒现象,小鼠饮酒量与模型组相比明显减少(P0.01);相比于正常组,模型组小鼠海马和前额叶皮质cAMP含量明显降低(P0.01),并且海马和额叶皮质PKA、p-CREB和BDNF也明显低于正常水平(P0.01)。咯利普兰(0.5和1 mg/kg)给药28 d后,海马与前额叶皮质cAMP含量明显增加(P0.01),酒精抑制的海马脑区PKA、p-CREB和BDNF表达被逆转(P0.05),且酒精抑制的前额叶皮质PKA和p-CREB表达被逆转(P0.05)。结论:磷酸二酯酶4抑制剂咯利普兰能明显改善酒精中毒及戒断引起的抑郁样症状,且能减轻嗜酒症状,机制可能涉及第二信使cAMP通路。咯利普兰通过抑制PDE4,增加海马与前额叶皮质cAMP水平,进而激活PKA-CREB-BDNF通路,从而产生抗抑郁作用。     

Contractile responses to selective phosphodiesterase inhibitors following chronic β-adrenoreceptor activation

Contractile responses to phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors are attenuated in heart failure, an effect limiting the clinical value of these agents. In this study, we sought to determine whether abnormalities in the β-adrenoreceptor (β-AR)–cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) signal transduction are sufficient to account for downregulation of PDE inhibitor-induced inotropic responses following chronic sympathetic activation. Sustained β-AR activation produced by administration of isoproterenol (ISO) (50 μg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹ i.p. for 1 month) to rats resulted in cardiac hypertrophy, but did not affect baseline cardiac systolic function, as assessed in vivo by echocardiography and ex vivo under controlled loading conditions and heart rate (left ventricular systolic pressure–volume and stress–strain relations). Moreover, chronic ISO administration did not alter the baseline myocardial norepinephrine release or inotropic responses to incremental concentrations of Ca²⁺ in isolated, perfused heart preparations. However, left ventricular contractile responses to ISO, the PDE III inhibitor amrinone, and the PDE IV inhibitor rolipram were attenuated following chronic β-AR activation. Myocardial cAMP concentrations after stimulation with amrinone and rolipram were similar in ISO-treated and control rats. However, in ISO-treated rats, a marked decrease in contractile responsiveness to the cell-permeable, PDE-resistant cAMP analogue, 8-bromoadenosine cAMP, was noted. In conclusion, these data suggest that in cardiac disease, sustained β-AR activation, without producing ventricular systolic dysfunction or enhanced myocardial norepinephrine release, is sufficient to account for the downregulation of contractile responses to PDE inhibitors. This effect appears to be largely mediated through abnormalities in signal transduction between cAMP and Ca²⁺-induced Ca²⁺ release.     

Cyclic AMP specific phosphodiesterase activity and colon cancer cell motility

To investigate mechanisms for regulation of intracellular cAMP involved in cancer cell invasion, phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity in a colon cancer cell line, DLD-1, was studied. Activities of PDE 2, 4, and 5 were detected in DLD-1 cells by pharmacological approach. Specific and cell permeable inhibitors for those PDEs were used to determine which PDE is responsible for cAMP turnover involved in cancer cell motility. Treatment of DLD-1 cells with rolipram and Ro-20-1724, inhibitors for PDE 4, elevated intracellular cAMP contents three to five times of control. EHNA, an inhibitor for PDE 2, and zaprinast, an inhibitor for PDE 5, did not affect cAMP levels. To assess cellular motility, we utilized chemotaxis assay. EHNA and zaprinast did not suppress serum-induced chemotaxis. In contrast, rolipram and Ro-20-1724, suppressed chemotaxis in a dose dependent fashion. These suggest that PDE 4 plays a critical role in regulating intracellular cAMP levels of colon cancer cells and is involved in cancer invasion. PDE 4 can be a novel target of anti-invasion drug. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

环磷酸腺苷和一氧化氮在后适应保护缺氧/复氧损伤心肌细胞中的作用

背景：周期性的环磷酸腺苷浓度改变参与了预适应对缺血心脏的保护作用。 目的：观察环磷酸腺苷和一氧化氮在缺氧/复氧心肌细胞后适应保护机制中的可能作用。 方法：原代培养SD乳鼠心肌细胞,随机分为11组分别处理：正常对照组、缺氧/复氧组、心肌缺血后适应组、心肌缺血后适应+咯利普兰组、心肌缺血后适应+SQ22536或左旋精氨酸+心肌缺血后适应组,咯利普兰、SQ22536或各浓度Nω-硝基精氨酸+缺氧/复氧组。 结果与结论：心肌缺血后适应能显著改善缺氧/复氧损伤造成的心肌细胞活力下降,减少乳酸脱氢酶、肌酸激酶的释放,降低一氧化氮、肿瘤坏死因子α和白细胞介素β的mRNA表达;咯利普兰能进一步增强后适应对心肌细胞的保护作用,而腺苷酸环化酶抑制剂SQ22536可显著减弱该作用;20,100 μmol/L 非选择性一氧化氮合酶抑制剂Nω-硝基-左旋精氨酸能发挥类似于后适应的保护作用,而在1 000 μmol/L时则损伤心肌细胞(P < 0.05)。证实心肌缺血后适应对缺氧/复氧损伤心肌细胞的保护,可能是通过增强环磷酸腺苷信号抑制炎症过程实现的。     

Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases.

Cyclic nucleotide second messengers (cAMP and cGMP) play a central role in signal transduction and regulation of physiologic responses. Their intracellular levels are controlled by the complex superfamily of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (PDE) enzymes. Continuing advances in our understanding of the molecular pharmacology of these enzymes has led to the development of selective inhibitors as therapeutic agents for disease states ranging from cancer and heart failure to depression and sexual dysfunction. Several PDE types have been identified as therapeutic targets for immune/inflammatory diseases. This article briefly reviews the available in vitro, preclinical, and clinical data supporting the potential for selective PDE inhibitors as immunomodulatory agents.     

Inhibitors of phosphodiesterase isoforms III or IV suppress islet-cell nitric oxide production

The general phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor pentoxifylline (PTX), and the PDE type IV inhibitor rolipram (ROL), both increase intracellular cAMP levels and suppress inflammatory cytokine production by T cells and macrophages. We have previously shown that PTX and ROL protect from autoimmune diabetes in nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice. These drugs may mediate some of their anti-inflammatory effects by blocking nitric oxide (NO) production by macrophages. In this study, we investigated the effect of PDE inhibitors in blocking NO production by insulin-secreting NIT-1 insulinoma cells and mouse islet cells in vitro and in vivo. Insulinoma cells and islet cells produced NO when stimulated with a combination of inflammatory cytokines and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We found that both PTX and ROL markedly suppressed this induced NO production. Islet cells express PDEs III and IV and, accordingly, the PDE III inhibitor cilostamide (CIL) also suppressed NO production, and a combination of ROL and CIL had a synergistic effect. This suppression appeared to be mediated, at least in part, by elevating cAMP level and was mimicked by other cAMP-elevating agents, ie, membrane-permeable cAMP analogs (dibutyryl cAMP and 8-bromo cAMP) and an adenylate cyclase stimulator (forskolin). PDE inhibitors suppressed the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNA. In vivo treatment with PTX or ROL prevented iNOS protein expression in the islets of NOD mice with cyclophosphamide-accelerated disease. Our findings suggest that PDE inhibitors can protect islets against autoimmunity.     

柚皮素通过环核苷酸通路拮抗血小板聚集的体外研究

目的:探讨柚皮素拮抗二磷酸腺苷(ADP)诱导血小板聚集的作用机制。方法:采用ELISA检测柚皮素对ADP诱导的大鼠血小板内环磷酸腺苷(cAMP)、环磷酸鸟苷(cGMP)水平的影响。采用高效液相法检测柚皮素对血小板磷酸二酯酶(PDE)活性影响。采用Western blot检测柚皮素对ADP刺激的血小板内血管扩张刺激磷蛋白(VASP)磷酸化形式p-VASP(Ser157)、p-VASP(Ser239)的蛋白水平的影响。分别给予蛋白激酶A(PKA)抑制剂H89、蛋白激酶G(PKG)抑制剂Rp-8-Br-PET-cGMPS和蛋白激酶C(PKC)抑制剂GF109203X预先孵育血小板后,再用柚皮素处理,然后给予ADP刺激,Western blot检测p-VASP(Ser239)蛋白水平。采用血小板聚集仪进一步观察PKA抑制剂、PKG抑制剂预先孵育血小板是否影响柚皮素对ADP诱导血小板聚集的抑制作用。结果:柚皮素剂量依赖性地升高ADP抑制的血小板内cGMP水平,而并不改变cAMP水平。柚皮素还能显著升高血小板PDE活性。Western blot结果显示,柚皮素可明显升高由ADP抑制的p-VASP(Ser239)水平,但不影响p-VASP(Ser157)的蛋白水平,预先孵育PKG或PKC抑制剂并不影响柚皮素对p-VASP(Ser239)蛋白表达的作用,而预先孵育PKA抑制剂后,则能抑制柚皮素对p-VASP(Ser239)蛋白表达的作用。PKA抑制剂能阻断柚皮素对血小板聚集的拮抗作用,而PKG抑制剂并不影响其作用。结论:柚皮素可能通过升高血小板内cGMP水平和激活PKA依赖的信号通路来介导VASP的磷酸化,从而发挥抗血小板聚集的作用。     

Beclomethasone decreases elevations in phosphodiesterase activity in human T lymphocytes

BACKGROUND: We recently reported that CD4+ T cells that have been activated in vivo or in vitro contain elevated cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity. Since both phosphodiesterase inhibitors and glucocorticoids have anti-inflammatory activity, we sought to investigate the effect of beclomethasone on PDE activity. METHODS: PDE activity was measured in CD4+ T cells after 24 h of culture with beclomethasone. Cells were obtained from the peripheral blood of nonatopic persons (nCells), pre-seasonal (pCells), seasonal (within the first 2 weeks; sCells) and mid-seasonal (mCells) allergic rhinitics and asymptomatic allergic asthmatics (aCells). In addition, the effect of beclomethasone on Th2 cell lines and cells that had been activated in vitro with PHA or interleukin (IL)-2 was determined. RESULTS: PDE activity was decreased in a concentration-dependent manner by incubation of mCells, Th2 lines and PHA or IL-2-activated CD4+ T cells with beclomethasone (p < 0.05). However, beclomethasone did not modulate PDE activity in nCells, pCells, sCells, or aCells. CONCLUSIONS: Beclomethasone only decreases cAMP PDE activity in CD4+ T cells when it is increased by cell activation either in vitro or in vivo.     

Rolipram attenuates MK-801-induced deficits in latent inhibition

Latent inhibition is used to examine attention and study cognitive deficits associated with schizophrenia. Research using MK-801, an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) open channel blocker, implicates glutamate receptors in acquisition of latent inhibition of cued fear conditioning. Evidence suggests an important relationship between NMDA-induced increases in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and learning and memory. The authors examine whether amplification of the cAMP signaling pathway by rolipram, a selective Type 4 cAMP phosphodiesterase inhibitor, reverses MK-801-induced impairments in latent inhibition. One day before training, mice were injected with MK-801, rolipram, MK-801 and rolipram, or vehicle and received 20 preexposures or no preexposures to an auditory conditioned stimulus (CS). Training consisted of 2 CS-footshock unconditioned stimulus pairings. Rolipram attenuated the disruptive effect of MK-801 on latent inhibition, which suggests a role for the cAMP signaling pathway in the task and implicates phosphodiesterase inhibition as a target for treating cognitive impairments associated with schizophrenia.     

Effect of rolipram, a phosphodiesterase IV inhibitor, on allergic footpad swelling using various adjuvants in mice

We studied the effect of rolipram, a phosphodiesterase (PDE) IV inhibitor, on allergic footpad swelling in mice. For this study, varying adjuvants including complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA), incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA) and Imject Alum (Alum) were used because the extent of antigen-specifically induced T helper type 1 (Th1) and Th2 responses had been shown to depend on adjuvants used. To induce allergic footpad swelling, we immunized mice with ovalbumin (OVA) emulsified in either CFA or IFA, dissolved in Alum or in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) as a control (day 0), followed by subcutaneous injection of the antigen into footpads on day 21. Rolipram was given orally to the animals daily from days 0-20. Results showed that treatment with rolipram was followed by an increase in early swelling at 0.5 h and a decrease in late swelling at 6 and 24 h in the CFA group. In the IFA group, rolipram significantly enhanced swelling at, but not after, 30 min. In the Alum and the PBS groups, the PDE inhibitor failed to affect the OVA-specific footpad reaction at all times examined. Treatment of the CFA and IFA groups with rolipram significantly inhibited the production of the Th1 antibody anti-OVA immunoglobulin G2a (IgG2a), and the drug enhanced Th2 cell-dependent anti-OVA IgE production. In both groups, rolipram also enhanced the secretion of Th2 cytokines including interleukin-4 (IL-4) and IL-10. These findings suggest that rolipram may facilitate early allergic footpad swelling mediated by Th2 immune responses, while the late phase of swelling associated with Th1 responses may be attenuated by the PDE IV inhibitor.