Inter-observer agreement and sensitivity of Optomap images for screening peripheral retinal lesions in patients undergoing refractive surgery

Purpose:The aim of this study was to compute the sensitivity, specificity and inter-reader variability of ultra-widefield retinal imaging (Optomap 200Tx) for screening retinal lesions before myopic refractive surgery.Methods:Two hundred and eight eyes of 109 consecutive refractive surgery candidates were included in this study. All subjects underwent Optomap 200Tx, mydriatic slit-lamp lens examination and dilated retinal examination with scleral indentation by a retinal specialist. Retinal findings by indirect dilated examination by retinal specialist was considered as the gold-standard. Sensitivity analyses for the readers were calculated between the Optomap images and the gold-standard retinal examination.Results:Seventy-three of the 208 eyes (35.1%) had peripheral retinal lesions diagnosed by the retinal specialist on dilated fundus examination. Peripheral lesions were seen on the Optomap images in 111 (53.4%) eyes. Compared to the dilated retinal examination, the detection rate with the Optomap 200Tx was 78.1% and specificity rate was 60%. The accuracy rate between the 3 readers ranged from 72% to 87%. The highest accuracy was noted with the reader post 1 year of retinal training (86.54%).Conclusion:The Optomap 200Tx showed a high sensitivity and moderate specificity for identifying peripheral retinal lesions in eyes undergoing refractive surgery. The Optomap examination is a convenient, fast and feasible method for detecting the pathological fundus changes in myopic eyes. The reliability of the examination improves when the images are interpreted by a reader with prior retinal training.     

Ultra-wide field imaging system and traditional retinal examinations for screening fundus changes after cataract surgery

AIM: To compare the results of non-mydriatic ultra-wide field imaging system, mydriatic slit-lamp lens (Volk +90 D) and mydriatic Goldmann three-mirror contact lens examinations in screening fundus lesions among patients after cataract surgery. METHODS: Non-mydriatic images were obtained with an Optomap panoramic 200Tx (Optomap 200Tx) 3d after surgery and graded by a blinded ophthalmologist. A mydriatic slit-lamp lens examination was performed by another blinded retinal specialist on the same day. A third blinded retinal specialist examined patients two weeks after surgery using a Goldmann three-mirror contact lens. RESULTS: In total, 160 patients (184 eyes) were examined, and 66, 69, and 75 cases of retinal lesion(s) were identified using the Optomap 200Tx, slit-lamp lens, and Goldmann three-mirror contact lens, respectively. In 13 cases, fundus changes were sight-threatening. The results obtained by Optomap 200Tx examination and by mydriatic slit-lamp lens examination have good consistency (P=0.375, Kappa=0.942). The mydriatic Goldmann three-mirror lens examination revealed more fundus lesions but are consistent with Optomap 200Tx (P=0.004, Kappa=0.897) and mydriatic slit-lamp lens examination (P=0.031, Kappa=0.932). CONCLUSION: Early post-operative fundus screening in cataract patients is extremely important and necessary to prevent further vision loss. Wide-field imaging is a feasible and convenient tool for fundus examination that can be used as a primary screening method among patients after cataract surgery.     

Importance of fluorescein angiographic study in evaluating early retinal changes in Takayasu disease

PURPOSE: To determine the usefulness of fluorescein angiography in studying Takayasu disease. METHODS: We examined 31 eyes in 16 patients with Takayasu disease using indirect ophthalmoscopy, color photography, and fluorescein angiography. Ophthalmoscopic and fluorescein angiographic findings were compared. RESULTS: Fluorescein angiography revealed no additional retinal changes in 10 eyes that had no retinal vein dilatation as seen by indirect ophthalmoscopy. Seven (33%) of 21 eyes that had dilated retinal veins also had additional abnormal findings, such as microaneurysms, arteriovenous shunts, retinal neovascularization, and avascular areas. Some differences in grading the stages of retinopathy were noted with these newly found retinal changes, as compared with the classifications determined by ophthalmoscopy alone. CONCLUSIONS: In Takayasu disease, studying the fundus of patients with fluorescein angiography is particularly important in correctly classifying the stages of retinopathy when the retinal vein appears dilated in ophthalmoscopic observation.     

欧堡全景200Tx激光扫描检眼镜在白内障术后患者眼底检查中的应用

目的：研究欧堡全景200Tx激光扫描检眼镜(简称Optomap 200Tx)在白内障术后患者早期眼底筛查的应用价值。

方法：对2013-11-18/12-31来我院就诊的白内障患者146例161眼,均为连续病例,于术后1wk行非散瞳下直接检眼镜检查、非散瞳下Optomap 200Tx检查、散瞳后裂隙灯下前置镜检查,并对三种检查方法进行对比。

结果：患者146例161眼行非散瞳下直接检眼镜检查、非散瞳下Optomap 200Tx检查、散瞳后前置镜检查分别发现眼底病变40眼(24.8%),59眼(36.7%),61眼(37.9%),需要及时治疗病例9眼(5.6%)。非散瞳下Optomap 200Tx检查结果与散瞳后前置镜检查结果相似,差异无统计学意义,优于非散瞳下直接检眼镜检查,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。

结论：白内障患者术前屈光间质混浊,无法详查眼底,故应常规对白内障术后患者行全面眼底筛查。Optomap 200Tx是白内障术后早期眼底筛查的一项有效、便捷的检查手段,与散瞳后裂隙灯下前置镜检查有相似检出率。     

Nonmydriatic screening for diabetic retinopathy by ultra-widefield scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (Optomap)

Purpose To compare the diagnostic properties of a nonmydriatic 200° ultra-widefield scanning laser ophthalmoscope (SLO) versus onsite mydriatic ophthalmologic examination for diabetic retinopathy. Methods A consecutive series of 51 eyes of 51 patients with different levels of diabetic retinopathy (DR) was examined. Grading of diabetic retinopathy and macular edema obtained on stereoscopic dilated funduscopy by a retina specialist was compared against grading obtained from Optomap Panoramic200 SLO images. All SLOs were performed with an undilated pupil, and no additional clinical information was used for evaluation of the Optomap images by three independent, masked expert graders. Results A total of five images (9.8%) were not gradable due to insufficient quality. Clinically 4 eyes had proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), while 9 had none, 5 mild, 19 moderate and 14 severe nonproliferative diseases (NPDR). Of the gradable 46 images, a clinically significant macular edema (CSME) was present in 28 eyes clinically. On Optomap, all eyes with PDR were detected as being proliferative, and a sensitivity of 94% at a specificity of 100% was obtained for all graders to detect more than mild DR. Agreement between Optomap retinopathy grading and clinical assessment was good with unweighted kappas of 0.68, 0.68 and 0.51. Assessment of CSME yielded sensitivities of 93, 93 and 89% at specificities of 89, 72 and 83%. Conclusions The Optomap Panoramic200 nonmydriatic images are of sufficient quality to assess DR and CSME validly and therefore fulfill the basic requirements for telescreening programs. Aljoscha S. Neubauer and Marcus J. Kernt contributed equally. The authors do not have any commercial interest in any of the materials and methods used in this study.     

Serous macular detachment in central retinal vein occlusion

PURPOSE: To describe serous macular detachment in patients with central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO) by using optical coherence tomography (OCT). METHODS: This study included 22 eyes of 22 consecutive patients with CRVO. The patients underwent complete ophthalmic examination, including corrected visual acuity measurement, slit-lamp biomicroscopy, indirect ophthalmoscopy, color fundus photography, fluorescein angiography, and OCT. RESULTS: Twenty-two patients (22 eyes) with cystoid macular edema associated with CRVO (10 women and 12 men; age range, 48-75 years [average, 62.5 years]) made up the study population. Angiographically, all patients had typical cystoid macular edema. At the time of initial examination, no patient was suspected of having a serous macular detachment associated with CRVO. The mean foveal thickness as determined by OCT was 567.4 microm. In all cases, the increased thickness of the retina was related primarily to the hyporeflective intraretinal cavities. A serous macular detachment composed of retinal elevation over a nonreflective cavity with minimal shadowing of the underlying tissues was seen in 18 eyes (81.8%). CONCLUSION: OCT findings in this study showed that serous macular detachment in patients with CRVO occurs more often than previously thought. Our data also showed that noncontact fundus ophthalmoscopy and fluorescein angiography were not sufficient to diagnose serous macular detachment in CRVO.     

Ultra-wide-field fluorescein angiography of the ocular fundus

PURPOSE: To evaluate the clinical applicability of a novel scanning laser ophthalmoscopy imaging system for ultra-wide-field fluorescein angiography. DESIGN: Observational case report. METHODS: Wide-field fluorescein angiography images were captured in normal volunteers and in patients with a variety of clinical disorders with a newly developed scanning laser ophthalmoscope (Optomap; Optos PLC., Dunfermline, Scotland, United Kingdom) that produces high-resolution images of the fundus up to a 200-degree field. Fluorescein angiograms were performed using standard sequence times. RESULTS: Peripheral vascular perfusion of all four quadrants of a normal fundus was observed with good detail of the capillary architecture. Patients with diabetes and ocular inflammatory eye disease showed evidence of peripheral retinal nonperfusion. The relative degrees of retinal perfusion and nonperfusion could be compared in single images. CONCLUSIONS: Ultra-wide-field fundus fluorescein angiography offers the possibility of evaluating and quantitating peripheral retinal perfusion and vascular pathology in fundus disease.     

糖尿病性黄斑水肿的FFA与OCT的应用对比

目的:探讨糖尿病性黄斑水肿FFA与OCT的应用及其相互关系。方法:对70例135眼糖尿病性黄斑水肿患者行中心视力、最佳矫正视力、眼压、直接检眼镜、裂隙灯显微镜联合+90D前置镜散瞳眼底检查、散瞳眼底彩色照相、相干光断层扫描(OCT)、荧光素眼底血管造影(FFA)检查,并将相干光断层扫描和荧光素眼底血管造影结果比较分析。结果:轻度水肿时,FFA表现异常56眼,OCT表现异常68眼(P=0.0009);FFA表现正常12眼中,其OCT检查有10眼为海绵样改变;FFA表现为囊样型的,其OCT表现为囊样型占46.7%。结论:FFA,OCT联合应用于诊断糖尿病性黄斑水肿,而OCT作为临床随访DME是必不可少的检查手段,早期应用有优势。     

Retinal thickness in myopic and non‐myopic eyes*

Purpose: To investigate the retinal thickness profile in myopic and non‐myopic eyes. Methods: The retinal thickness profile of 30 myopic eyes [spherical equivalent error (SER) between ?6.00 and ?13.63 D] and 31 non‐myopic eyes (SER between +2.75 and ?0.50 D) were measured using the Stratus OCT (Carl Zeiss Meditec, Dublin, CA, USA). Two scan types were used: the Macular Thickness Map and the Customized Line Scan for a central 80° horizontal retinal thickness profile. Results: At foveal center and fovea, myopic eyes had a thicker retina than the non‐myopic group (p = 0.002 and 0.044, respectively). At other zones of the macula, the retina was significantly thinner in myopic eyes compared to non‐myopic eyes (p < 0.01, unpaired t‐test). From 40° nasal to 40° temporal retina, a general reduction of retinal thickness was observed across the myopic retina compared to the non‐myopic retina except at 20° nasal to fixation. Conclusions: There was general reduction in retinal thickness within the horizontal central 80° in myopic eyes compared with non‐myopic eyes.     

Non-mydriatic fundus photography: A viable alternative to fundoscopy for identification of diabetic retinopathy in an Aboriginal population in rural Western Australia?

Purpose: To evaluate the Canon CR5-45NM non-mydriatic fundus camera (Canon, Kanagawa, Japan) for identifying retinopathy and the need for laser treatment in a population of Aboriginal patients with diabetes mellitus in rural Western Australia.
Methods: Diabetic Aboriginal patients were photographed through undilated pupils using a Canon CR5-45NM nonmydriatic fundus camera, after which ophthalmoscopy was performed using indirect ophthalmoscopy through dilated pupils. The examining ophthalmologist recorded the presence of retinopathy and the need for laser treatment. A proportion of patients were rephotographed through dilated pupils. Photographs were reviewed by a second ophthalmologist who evaluated the quality of the image, the presence of retinopathy and the need for laser treatment. Results of fundus photographs and ophthalmoscopy were compared.
Results: Three hundred and twenty-eight eyes in 164 Aboriginal patients were examined. The mean patient age was 48.2 years (range 16–81 years) and the mean duration of diabetes was 7.5 years (range 1–35 years). Seventy-four eyes (22.6%) were diagnosed with retinopathy using combined examination techniques, 44 (59.5%) of which were identified by ophthalmoscopy and 55 (74.3%) by photography. Thirty-five eyes were deemed to need treatment, 18 (51.4%) of which were identified by ophthalmoscopy and 30 (85.7%) by photography. Kappa coefficient measurement for agreement for presence of retinopathy and need for referral was 0.41 and 0.53, respectively. Photograph quality was significantly improved following pupil dilation.
Conclusions: The Canon CR5-45NM non-mydriatic fundus camera was relatively good at identifying diabetic retinopathy and could usefully be applied within a screening programme for treatable disease within this population.     

近视LASIK术前倍频Nd：YAG激光预防性视网膜光凝的临床观察

目的对准分子激光原位角膜磨镶术（laser in situ keratomileusis,LASIK）术前检查明确有视网膜变性和（或）裂孔的近视患者行预防性倍频Nd：YAG激光光凝,分析其临床效果。方法LASIK术前行散瞳后详细的眼底检查,对有发生孔源性视网膜脱离的高危变性和（或）伴有裂孔者72例（86眼）行倍频Nd：YAG激光光凝治疗。激光波长532nm,光斑大小50～300μm,曝光时间0.2～0.25s,功率100～300mW。激光光凝后1个月,检查眼底周边激光光斑反应情况,并行常规LASIK手术。术后随访9～12个月,复查眼底、视力等情况。结果行倍频Nd：YAG激光光凝1个月后,病变区周围激光光斑反应良好,无中心视力下降。LASIK术后1年,未发现视网膜变性加重和孔源性视网膜脱离。1年后裸眼视力4.6～4.8者4眼,4.9～5.0者82眼。结论LASIK术前视网膜变性及干孔的近视患者行预防性倍频Nd：YAG激光光凝是一种安全的方法,可有效地预防术后视网膜脱离的发生。     

Ophthalmoscopy versus fundus photographs for detecting and grading diabetic retinopathy.

Reported here is the agreement between three examination methods chosen to detect and grade diabetic retinopathy in 124 subjects with type II (noninsulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. These three examination methods include ophthalmoscopy (indirect and direct) by a retina specialist, seven standard field fundus photographs read by the same retina specialist, and the same photographs read by a trained photographic grader at the Fundus Photograph Reading Center. For the 59 subjects examined with all three methods, these results indicated fair to good (kappas, 0.69-0.84) agreement between the retina specialist's and trained grader's reading of photographs, fair to good (kappas, 0.58-0.79) agreement between the retina specialist's ophthalmoscopic findings and the specialist's reading of photographs, and fair (kappas, 0.49-0.62) agreement between the retina specialist's ophthalmoscopic findings and the trained grader's reading of fundus photographs. Analysis of the disagreements confirmed earlier reports that ophthalmoscopy misses approximately 50% of eyes with microaneurysms only. Other disagreements resulted from the trained grader's overreading photographs of eyes with lesions simulating diabetic retinopathy. Of the 393 total subjects (diabetic and nondiabetic) in this study, such lesions were seen with ophthalmoscopy in six eyes of six subjects (2.4% of diabetic patients and 1.1% of nondiabetic subjects). The authors believe at least one definite retinal microaneurysm should be present in one eye before establishing the diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy in diabetic patients.     

An automated microaneurysm detector as a tool for identification of diabetic retinopathy in rural optometric practice

Background: With the increase in the prevalence of diabetes, rural optometric clinics stand to increase their patient load and assessment of diabetic eye disease. This study aimed to assess whether automated identification of diabetic retinopathy based on the presence of microaneurysms is an effective tool in clinical practice. Methods: We analysed 758 fundal images of 385 patients with diabetes attending the clinic obtained using a Canon CR5 with an EOS10 digital camera through a dilated pupil. Five optometrists employed in the clinic assessed the diabetic retinopathy using binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy. The sensitivity and specificity of the automated system used to analyse the retinal fundal images was determined by comparison with optometric and ophthalmologic assessment. Results: The optometrists achieved 97 per cent sensitivity at 88 per cent specificity with respect to the ophthalmic classification for detecting retinopathy. The automated retinopathy detector achieved 85 per cent sensitivity at 90 per cent specificity at detecting retinopathy. Conclusion: The automated microaneurysm detector has a lower sensitivity compared to the optometrists but meets NHMRC guidelines. It may impact on the efficiency of rural optometric practices by early identification of diabetic retinopathy. Automated assessment can save time and be cost‐effective, and provide a history of changes in the retinal fundus and the opportunity for instant patient education using the digital images.     

Retinal pigment epithelium lesions as a biomarker of disease in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. A follow-up report.

BACKGROUND: The sensitivity of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) lesions as a predictive congenital marker for the development of familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is evaluated. METHODS: In a prospective study, 34 patients at 50% risk of inheriting FAP were examined. Based on the presence or absence of four or more RPE lesions, patients were categorized as those who had inherited or those who lacked the FAP genes. All patients received dilated fundus examinations with binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy and all RPE lesions were documented with fundus photography. All patients underwent annual sigmoidoscopy to determine the presence or absence of polyps. RESULTS: A 3-year follow-up analysis showed that 8 of 14 patients who were positive for RPE lesions later developed polyps. Of the 20 patients considered negative for FAP based on normal fundus examination, none has developed polyps. CONCLUSION: The authors urge all patient at risk of inheriting FAP to undergo dilated fundus examination with binocular indirect ophthalmoscopy and wide-angle fundus photography at the earliest age possible. All patients with 4 or more RPE lesions should undergo annual sigmoidoscopic examinations beginning before 10 years of age.     

Fundus lesions in malignant hypertension. IV. Focal intraretinal periarteriolar transudates

Experimental renovascular malignant arterial hypertension was produced in 57 rhesus monkeys by a modified Goldblatt's procedure and their eyes were studied by serial ophthalmoscopy, by stereoscopic color fundus photography, and by fluorescein fundus angiography over a period of months or years. A very common, and one of the earliest, lesions in hypertensive retinopathy was focal intraretinal periarteriolar transudates (FIPTs). In the past, FIPTs have been described erroneously as "cotton-wool spots." The two types of lesions differ very much in shape, size, color, location, fluorescein fundus angiographic pattern, resolution pattern, life cycle, and pathogenesis. FIPTs, on ophthalmoscopy, usually are pinpoint to pinhead size, round or oval, dull white in color, and situated in deeper layers of the retina and beside the major retinal arteries and their main branches. On fluorescein angiography, FIPTs show multiple punctate foci of fluorescein leakage from dilated precapillary retinal arterioles, and there is no focal retinal capillary obliteration. They usually last for two to three weeks, and on resolution leave no ophthalmoscopic, angiographic, or microvascular abnormality. Cotton-wool spots are seen in a variety of retinopathies; FIPTs, however, are a specific retinal lesion of malignant arterial hypertension only. They develop due to breakdown of blood-retinal barrier in pre-capillary retinal arterioles, due to dilatation of the arterioles from failure of autoregulation (caused by severe rise of blood pressure).     

白内障术前眼底检查的意义-100例临床观察

目的探讨白内障术前眼底检查的意义。方法100例（100眼）术前行常规B超检查后,再行间接检眼镜检查眼底。结果术前B超检查视网膜无异常,眼底镜检查发现视神经萎缩1例,高度近视黄斑板层孔1例,视网膜色素变性1例,陈旧性视网膜病变I例（视网膜分支静脉阻塞）,糖尿病视网膜病变5例,术后检查与术前检查结果完全相同。结论白内障术前行眼底镜检查,可以为手术医师提供正确诊断,预测术后视力提高的程度,大大减少医患之间不必要的医疗纠纷。     

Threshold retinopathy of prematurity: ocular changes and sequelae following cryotherapy

PURPOSE: To determine ocular changes and sequelae following cryotherapy for threshold retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). METHODS: This is a retrospective study of 49 eyes of 26 premature babies with threshold ROP treated with cryotherapy between 1995 and 1998. All eyes included in the study had favourable structural outcome after cryotherapy. Follow-up examination of all babies was done 12 - 62 months (average 28 months) after cryotherapy. Visual axis, fixation pattern, anterior segment examination, cycloplegic refraction and dilated fundus examination with indirect ophthalmoscopy were undertaken in all eyes during follow-up. RESULTS: Posterior pole retinal residuae observed following cryotherapy were tortousity of blood vessels in 32 (65.3%), narrow temporal arcade in 22 (44.89%), temporal crescent in 17 (34.69%), disc drag in 13 (26.53%) and macular heterotopia in 7 (14.28%) eyes. Myopia was observed in 20 (40.82%) eyes and strabismus in 5 (19.23%) babies. The significant risk factor for ocular changes was ROP with more clock hours of involvement (p < 0.05). Higher period of gestation was associated with posterior pole changes (p< 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: All premature babies with threshold ROP treated with cryotherapy require frequent and long-term follow up to look for retinal residuae, refractive status, and ocular motility disorders.     

先天性视网膜劈裂症的光学相干断层扫描图像特征

目的 探讨先天性视网膜劈裂症的光学相干断层扫描(optical coherence tomography,OCT)图像特征及临床诊断价值。 方法 对临床拟诊或诊断为先天性视网膜劈裂症患者8例15只眼行OCT、直接检眼镜、眼底彩色照相检查,其中3例6只眼行视网膜电图(electroretinogram,ERG)及荧光素眼底血管造影(fundus fluorescein angiography,FFA)检查。 结果 先天性视网膜劈裂症的OCT图像表现为典型的黄斑区囊样改变,伴斜形或垂直的桥状组织相连;后极部视网膜神经上皮层之间分离,其间有桥状组织相连;纱膜样改变的OCT图像为内层神经上皮增厚,与外层神经上皮分离。 结论 OCT能在活体直观、清晰地显示先天性视网膜劈裂症中的视网膜神经上皮层组织结构的改变,为先天性视网膜劈裂症的临床诊断提供了一种有效的新的检测手段。 (中华眼底病杂志, 1999, 15: 209-211)     

The sensitivity and specificity of single-field nonmydriatic monochromatic digital fundus photography with remote image interpretation for diabetic retinopathy screening: a comparison with ophthalmoscopy and standardized mydriatic color photography

PURPOSE: To evaluate single-field digital monochromatic nonmydriatic fundus photography as an adjunct in the screening of diabetic retinopathy. DESIGN: Prospective, comparative, observational case series. METHODS: Patients with type I and type II diabetes mellitus (n = 197) were sequentially evaluated by three different techniques: single-field digital monochromatic nonmydriatic photography; dilated ophthalmoscopy by an ophthalmologist; and seven Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) standardized 35-mm color stereoscopic mydriatic images. The seven stereoscopic color photographs served as the reference standard and were compared with either ophthalmoscopy or a single digital photograph transmitted electronically to a reading site. Levels of agreement were determined by kappa analyses. The sensitivity and specificity of the three methods were compared based on a threshold for referral to further ophthalmologic evaluation (ETDRS level > or =35). RESULTS: There was highly significant agreement (kappa = 0.97, P =.0001) between the degree of retinopathy detected by a single nonmydriatic monochromatic digital photograph and that seen in seven standard 35-mm color stereoscopic mydriatic fields. The sensitivity of digital photography compared with color photography was 78%, with a specificity of 86%. Agreement was poor (kappa = 0.40, P =.0001) between mydriatic ophthalmoscopy and the seven-field standard 35-mm color photographs. Sensitivity of ophthalmoscopy compared with color photography was 34%, with a specificity of 100%. CONCLUSION: A single nonmydriatic monochromatic wide-field digital photograph of the disk and macula was more sensitive for diabetic retinopathy screening than mydriatic ophthalmoscopy, the currently accepted screening method. When adjudicated by standard seven-field color photographs, the higher sensitivity of digital photography primarily reflected the reduced sensitivity of ophthalmoscopy in detecting early retinopathy.     

Ocular changes in tropical malaria with cerebral involvement--results from the Blantyre Malaria Project

INTRODUCTION: Malaria is a tropical disease causing an estimated 300 million infections and one million deaths per year. In sub-Saharan Africa, most infections are due to Plasmodium falciparum. The hallmark of the clinical syndrome of cerebral malaria is coma, and the associated mortality rate, even in appropriately treated patients, is 15 - 50 %. Funduscopy plays a major role for the ophthalmologist in the differential diagnosis because of the characteristic changes. METHODS: To date more than 1000 children who satisfied the standard clinical case definition of cerebral malaria were admitted to the Blantyre Malaria Project (Malawi, Africa) for inpatient treatment and examined using indirect ophthalmoscopy through fully dilated pupils. The gender distribution was homogeneous and the children were between 2 and 14 years old. The optic nerve head, central and peripheral retina and central and peripheral vessels were described and photographed using a hand-held fundus camera (KOWA). RESULTS: The spectrum and severity of findings of the ocular fundus in children with CM include the following distinct entities: haemorrhages (with and without a white centre), cotton wool spots, papilloedema, retinal whitening and retinal vessel abnormalities that may appear to be orange or white. Most of the retinal haemorrhages (in 40 %) have white centres and resemble Roth spots. Cotton wool spots were seen in only 5 %. Papilloedema was also not commonly seen (8 %) but is a poor prognostic sign. Retinal whitening (in 50 %) is seen more commonly at the posterior pole than in the periphery. 20 % of patients show retinal vessel abnormalities that may be orange or white in colour. CONCLUSION: Ocular fundus changes in CM can be detected by the ophthalmologist using simple means and are decisive for the prognosis and timely therapy for this potentially lethal disease.