Personality and eating habit variables as predictors of severity of binge eating and weight

The present study investigated several personality and eating habit variables as predictors of the severity of binge eating and weight deviation. Subjects were 120 normal weight and overweight undergraduate women selected to vary along predetermined dimensions of weight and severity of binge eating. After providing relevant demographic and life history data, they completed a series of self-report questionnaires. Results of a canonical analysis support the independence of binge eating and weight. Two stepwise multiple regressions indicated that anorexic-like eating attitudes, dissatisfaction with body image, and poor self-image were significant predictors of the severity of binge eating while none of the measures was a significant predictor of weight deviation. The amount of stress experienced in the past year was found to be the only significant demographic/historical predictor of binge eating. These findings are discussed with respect to their implications for current understanding of the binge eating phenomenon.     

Component analysis in smoking prevention research: Effects of social consequences information

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of information about the negative social consequences of cigarette smoking on adolescents' beliefs and intentions to smoke. In contrast to the large-scale, multiple component interventions most commonly conducted, this study compared two brief videotaped messages that contained either social consequences or control information. Fifty-four seventh graders enrolled in health education classes participated. Measures collected immediately after the intervention and at a one month follow-up indicated that the social consequences information successfully altered subjects' smoking-related beliefs. The social consequences information also affected intentions to smoke in the future, but only for subjects who had previously experimented with smoking. Female smokers' intentions to continue smoking were reduced, but the intervention had the opposite effect on male smokers. The discussion addresses the importance of examining the effects of prevention program components on different subsamples of adolescents in small-scale process evaluations.     

Superiority of a low-contrast smoking cessation method

Methods of quitting smoking that deplete body nicotine levels without simultaneously reducing cigarette nicotine levels serve to increase the contrast between these two levels. High-contrast enhances the salience of each cigarette. In this study a low-contrast nicotine fading procedure (NiF) was compared with a high-contrast number fading treatment (NuF). With 76 persons it was found that NiF was statistically superior to NuF. It was also found that caffeine is correlated with cigarette smoking in both males and females and with alcohol intake in males. It is suggested that future smoking cessation programs be based on low-contrast methods, and that results could probably be enhanced by the elimination of caffeine and minimization of alcohol intake. A contrast theory of addiction is briefly discussed.     

Three-year data on a behavioral treatment for smoking: A follow-up note

A study reported by Lando (1981) compared two-stage treatment (aversion, maintenance) against three-stage treatment (preparation, aversion, and maintenance) under conditions of either intensive or minimal experimenter contact. One-year follow-up data indicated the superiority of the two-stage intensive contact procedure. The present article reports additional follow-up data at 12, 18, 24, and 36 months. Results continued to favor two-stage intensive contact. Long-term abstinence in this condition consistently exceeded 40% as opposed to less than 25% in the other conditions.     

Experience-dependent recovery of cognitive functioning in young alcoholics

Spontaneous recovery of some cognitive functioning in alcoholics after drinking has ceased has been convincingly demonstrated, but there have been no demonstrations of recovery that occurs primarily due to exposure of the alcoholic to specific environmental events. In the present study two groups of alcoholics began a 3-week series of tests sensitive to alcoholic cognitive dysfunction at different time lags after drinking ceased (1 week vs. at least 3 weeks). Each group received five administrations each of three tests. On two of the measures, comparisons between the initial testings administered at least three weeks apart revealed the expected pattern of improvement concommitant with the passage of time. On the Halstead-Reitan Trailmaking Test (Part B), initial test scores were equivalent, showing no time-dependent recovery. Instead, performance improved solely as a function of repeated task administration, thus demonstrating "experience-dependent" recovery. Initial levels of impairment and the extent of recovery were established using two non-alcoholic control groups. Since evidence has accrued that alcoholics' treatment outcome may relate to neuropsychological status, experience-dependent rehabilitation of cognitive functioning may improve success rates in alcoholism treatment.     

Effects of preparation,experimenter contact,and a maintained reduction alternative on a broad-spectrum program for eliminating smoking

The present investigation compared the successful two-stage treatment reported by Lando (1977) against an intensified version of a less successful three-stage program (Lando, 1978). Minimal experimenter contact and maintained reduction for nonabstinent subjects were also assessed. Subjects were 44 males and 56 females. Although there was a consistent trend for two-stage treatment to produce better results than three-stage treatment, differences between these conditions were significant only at 12-month follow-up. Intensive contact was superior to minimal contact only at Week 1. The maintained reduction procedure was not successfully implemented. Significant interactions were evident between experimenter contact and treatment stages throughout the follow-up period, with two-stage subjects appearing to benefit from intensive contact and three-stage subjects actually doing better under minimal contact. Results supported the efficacy of the two-stage aversion and maintenance program first reported by Lando (1977). Results also contradicted the assumption that more complex is necessarily better and pointed to the inadequacy of simple post hoc alternatives for nonabstinent subjects.     

Nicotine fading as a nonaversive alternative in a broad-spectrum treatment for eliminating smoking

The present investigation assessed the effectiveness of nicotine fading as a non-aversive alternative to oversmoking. Subjects (66 women and 64 men) were randomly assigned to oversmoking, nicotine fading, nicotine fading/smokeholding, and a nonmaintenance control. Results failed to indicate the expected superiority of nicotine fading/maintenance over the control condition. Instead, the addition of smokeholding appeared to produce a significant incremental effect over nicotine fading alone. Unfortunately, 12-month follow-up revealed considerable relapse across conditions and no significant treatment effects. Even so, absolute outcome for nicotine fading/smokeholding was encouraging. This procedure is both safe and apparently very acceptable to subjects. If the current results can be replicated, a clinically effective technique will have been established with applicability in both clinic and self-help settings.     

Inexpensive methods for recruiting subjects to smoking cessation programs

Researchers in the area of smoking cessation have often been plagued with difficulties in securing adequate subject samples. The present investigation assessed the effectiveness of specific publicity techniques (e.g., standard news releases, taped public service announcements, posters, letters to employers) in recruiting subjects. Studies were conducted in a metropolitan area of approximately 250,000 residents and in a university community of approximately 40,000 residents. Results were extremely encouraging, with the greatest impact apparently resulting from news releases, letters to employers, and word of mouth.     

A factorial analysis of preparation,aversion, and maintenance in the elimination of smoking

The present investigation initiated a dismantling strategy in which subjects were assigned to treatment stages (preparation, aversion, maintenance) or to combinations of stages in a factorial design. It was hypothesized that multistage conditions would be superior to single stage conditions and that maintenance would retard relapse. Forty men and 33 women were randomly assigned to one of seven conditions. Results supported both hypotheses although significant effects were no longer evident at 12-month follow-up. Considerable relapse occurred in all conditions. Specific treatment components appeared to be of limited importance as indicated by generally very similar results for preparation and aversion. Booster sessions appeared to be ineffective. Interpretation of the findings is limited, however, by a relatively small subject enrollment in each condition. It was concluded that attempts to isolate extremely precise treatment elements are unlikely to be successful. Suggestions for further research included adoption of more structured maintenance strategies emphasizing coping skills and a more systematic focus upon potentially important process variables, notably group cohesiveness.     

A balanced placebo investigation of the effects of alcohol vs. alcohol expectancy on simulated driving behavior

The present investigation employed a balanced placebo design to examine the effects of alcohol versus the belief that one has consumed alcohol, i.e., alcohol expectancy, on error production while operating a driving simulator. The male subjects employed were social drinkers, having no history of alcohol abuse. The alcoholic beverage consisted of vodka and tonic in the ratio of 1:5, resulting in a mean blood alcohol level of .064%. The placebo beverage consisted of water and tonic, also in the ratio 1:5. Principal findings were that alcohol ingestion had a debilitating effect on certain measures of driving behavior (operation of brakes, steering), whereas the belief that one had consumed alcohol had no discernable effects. The results are discussed in relation to other findings using the balanced placebo design. It was concluded that reckless driving under the influence of alcohol, is at least partly a result of the pharmological effects of ethanol.     

Drinking and creativity: Objective and subjective effects

A literature characterized by considerable speculation but a paucity of empirical studies prompted this experiment on the relation between drinking and creativity. After being queried about how they believed alcohol would affect their creative performance, 40 male undergraduate social drinkers were assigned to one of four treatments in a balanced placebo design. Those actually receiving alcohol consumed a mixture containing .6 g of ethanol per kg of body weight. All subjects then completed the entire Figural portion and the Unusual Uses subtest of the Verbal portion of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Posttesting explored subjects' own evaluations of their creative products and the kinds of attributions they made about factors contributing to the outcomes. Results showed minimal effects of beverage manipulations on measured creativity even when a priori belief and concurrent mood scores were covaried. However, those individuals who thought they had received alcohol gave significantly more positive evaluations of their creative performances than did subjects who believed they were in the non-alcohol treatments. Subjects did not attribute changes in creativity to drinking. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings were discussed.     

Reducing junk food palatability and consumption by aversive conditioning

Studies of aversive conditioning as a treatment for obesity have typically yielded disappointing results. It is suggested that weight loss, the typical outcome measure in these studies, is inappropriate. Using measures of target food consumption and palatability (subjective ratings and the Strongin-Hinsie-Peck test) a self-administered aversive stimulus consisting of a rubber band snap was found to be more effective than placebo or no-treatment controls. Although conclusions are limited by the subjects and methodology used in this study, the results strongly support further investigation of aversive methods.     

Relapse coping and problem solving training following treatment for smoking

Following an initial smoking program, 33 subjects were randomly assigned to one of four maintenance strategy conditions developed to investigate the Marlatt and Gordon cognitive-behavioral model of relapse. Two out of three components of the model were supported. Abstinent subjects given problem solving training did not show significant relapse while those given an attention placebo control did relapse significantly. Self-efficacy expectations predicted smoking rate up to 5-month follow-up. Contrary to expectations based on the Marlatt and Gordon model, subjects taught to cope with the guilt and sense of personal failure associated with a relapse episode showed considerable relapse.     

Screening for anorexia and bulimia nervosa in a college population: Problems and limitations

In relation to prevalence studies, bulimia and anorexia nervosa symptoms have been reported to be surprisingly high, although such studies have relied upon questionnare data. The present study examines the reliability and validity of an eating disorder questionnaire (Eating Attitudes Test) in discriminating anorexics and bulimics from a general female college population. Of an initial test sample of 162 subjects, 56 were subsequently interviewed and retested. The results indicated that the questionnaire gave a high false positive rate for both eating disorders. Discussion focuses on limitations of questionnaire data in determining bulimia prevalence rates.     

The obese eating style: bites, beliefs, and behavior modification.

The behavioral treatment of obesity is based on several assumptions which have remained virtually unexamined. Two of these contend that (a) obese and non-obese individuals display distinctive eating styles, and (b) the obese person can reduce by adopting the eating style of the non-obese person. Four studies are described which examined some of the assumptions and components of behavior modification strategies. In general, the data did not support the eating style distinction. Moreover, the findings from one study suggest that cognitive factors (beliefs) may exert a stronger influence on food consumption than some of the behavior change procedures typically employed.     

Self-management treatment of smoking behavior

Twenty nine habitual smokers were randomly assigned to one of three treatments: (1) self-management treatment (SMT), (2) self-monitoring plus social reinforcement (SMSR), and (3) no-treatment control (NT). An analysis of covariance of mean smoking frequency, with pre-treatment smoking frequency as the covariate, revealed that at treatment termination (7 weeks) SMT and SMSR means were significantly lower than the NT mean and there was no significant difference between the former 2 groups. At follow-up, 80 days after treatment termination, the no significant difference between these latter 2 groups. Further analyses indicated that both SMT and SMSR groups had significantly reduced means at both treatment termination and follow-up, relative to pretreatment. Further, neither SMT nor SMSR groups revealed significant relapses over the follow-up interim. Self-report data revealed significant relapses over the follow-up interim. Self-report data revealed a substantial (0.77) and significant partial correlation between consistency of use of SMT techniques and treatment gains. Results were interpreted as suggesting: (1) the efficacy of a “comprehensive” self-management treatment package and (2) the potential importance of extended treatment durations.     

Influence of social setting and social drinking stimuli on drinking behavior

The present study examined the influence of social setting cues and alcohol drinking cues on the drinking rate and amount of beer consumed by social drinkers (college age males). The design consisted of three experimental conditions (N = 8); a social drinking condition in which the individual drank beer in the company of a beer drinking partner, a social setting condition in which the individual drank with a nondrinking partner, and a solitary setting, control condition. Analyses of variance revealed a significant group effect for amount of alcohol consumed, P <.05, and for sip rate, P <.05, suggesting that social setting cues were discriminate for higher rates and larger amounts of alcohol consumption by social drinkers. These findings are inconsistent with the negative findings reported by Foy & Simon (1978) in their comparison of drinking behavior of alcoholics in social vs. solitary settings. Further research is recommended in order to replicate the obtained findings with alcoholics, as well as with social drinkers, while extending the drinking interval beyond 50 minutes.     

Assessing generalization of treatment effects and self-efficacy in the modification of eating styles in obese children

The present study implemented a brief behavioral treatment program designed to alter the eating styles of 16 obese children and assessed the generalizability of children's eating styles from a laboratory setting to a school cafeteria. Results indicated that obese children exhibited significantly different eating styles at different mealtimes across the two settings. The treatment program was also found effective in altering eating styles in both settings. Although no significant differences between the eating styles of obese and normal weight children were observed prior to treatment, the 2-week follow-up observation in the natural setting demonstrated a different eating style between obese and normal weight peers. Results also indicated that a self-efficacy rating scale was no more effective than a control measure in predicting post-treatment eating styles.     

Outcome prediction of inpatient alcohol detoxification

A wide range of patient characteristics was assessed to determine their relative contribution upon alcohol detoxification treatment outcome. The outcome criteria were length of stay and commitment to ongoing rehabilitation, of which 17% and 24% of respective variance was accounted for by the predictor variables. The Internal-External Locus of Control scale was the most significant predictor, with internals tending toward successful treatment outcomes. The measures which tapped degree of socio-economic life satisfaction and physiological complications due to alcohol abuse, were inversely related to positive outcomes.     

Obesity,anxiety, and food consumption

This study examined the relation between level of anxiety (relaxation, low, and high) and food consumption among obese and normal weight individuals. Obese individuals ate significantly less when highly anxious than when mildly anxious. Their consumption when relaxed was at an intermediate level. Normal weight people ate similar amounts at all levels of anxiety. These data were not consistent with the prediction of psychosomatic theory (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1957) that obese people eat more when anxious than calm. The findings were partially consistent with Robbins and Fray's (1980) hypothesis that for obese people there is a curvilinear relation between anxiety and eating with maximum food consumption occuring at moderate levels of anxiety. The data in this study suggest that level of anxiety is an important factor to consider in understanding the influence of anxiety on eating behavior.