Commuters’ Exposure to Particulate Matter Air Pollution Is Affected by Mode of Transport,Fuel Type,and Route

Background

Commuters are exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants, but little quantitative information is currently available on differences in exposure between different modes of transport, routes, and fuel types.

Objectives

The aim of our study was to assess differences in commuters’ exposure to traffic-related air pollution related to transport mode, route, and fuel type.

Methods

We measured particle number counts (PNCs) and concentrations of PM_2.5 (particulate matter ≤ 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter), PM₁₀, and soot between June 2007 and June 2008 on 47 weekdays, from 0800 to 1000 hours, in diesel and electric buses, gasoline- and diesel-fueled cars, and along two bicycle routes with different traffic intensities in Arnhem, the Netherlands. In addition, each-day measurements were taken at an urban background location.

Results

We found that median PNC exposures were highest in diesel buses (38,500 particles/cm³) and for cyclists along the high-traffic intensity route (46,600 particles/cm³) and lowest in electric buses (29,200 particles/cm³). Median PM₁₀ exposure was highest from diesel buses (47 μg/m³) and lowest along the high- and low-traffic bicycle routes (39 and 37 μg/m³). The median soot exposure was highest in gasoline-fueled cars (9.0 × 10⁻⁵/m), diesel cars (7.9 × 10⁻⁵/m), and diesel buses (7.4 × 10⁻⁵/m) and lowest along the low-traffic bicycle route (4.9 × 10⁻⁵/m). Because the minute ventilation (volume of air per minute) of cyclists, which we estimated from measured heart rates, was twice the minute ventilation of car and bus passengers, we calculated that the inhaled air pollution doses were highest for cyclists. With the exception of PM₁₀, we found that inhaled air pollution doses were lowest for electric bus passengers.

Conclusions

Commuters’ rush hour exposures were significantly influenced by mode of transport, route, and fuel type.     

Air pollutant exposure and inhaled dose during urban commuting: a comparison between cycling and motorized modes

Active commuting has great health, environment, economic, and social benefits. However, cyclists are at risk for exposure to vehicle-related air pollutants due to their proximity to vehicle traffic and elevated respiratory rates. Consequently, more information on differences in inhaled doses between different transport modes is needed. The aim of this study is to assess and map the exposure of travelers to air pollutants using different transportation modes and to consider minute ventilation variablity and travel duration for the calculation of inhaled dose. Particulate matter (PM10, PM4, PM2.5 and PM1), CO, volatile organic compound (VOC), CO₂, and O₃ were measured between December 2013 and March 2014 in a total of 75 travels performed by bus, metro, car, bicycle, and motorcycle at five periods of the day (8, 11, 14, 17:30, and 21 h). Results showed that car drivers and bus passengers in urban streets may be exposed to higher pollutant levels than cyclists traveling in the same streets. However, this enhanced air pollution exposure is compensated by the higher ventilation rates of cyclists, which presented the highest inhaled doses. To reduce exposure concentrations, spatial and temporal separation of cyclists from motorized vehicle traffic should be achieved with separated bicycle facilities, low volume routes, and off-peak travel.     

Perceived indoor air quality,air-related symptoms and ventilation in Finnish hospitals

Objectives  

Good ventilation is more important in hospitals than in many other buildings. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the condition, performance and modernity of ventilation systems on the perceived indoor air quality (IAQ) and the indoor air-related symptoms of hospital personnel.     

Installation of mechanical ventilation in a horse stable: effects on air quality and human and equine airways

Objectives  

To examine the effects of installing a mechanical ventilation system at a riding-school stable on indoor air quality and human and horse airways.     

Determining geographic areas and populations with timely access to cardiac catheterization facilities for acute myocardial infarction care in Alberta,Canada

Background  

This study uses geographic information systems (GIS) as a tool to evaluate and visualize the general accessibility of areas within the province of Alberta (Canada) to cardiac catheterization facilities. Current American and European guidelines suggest performing catheterization within 90 minutes of the first medical contact. For this reason, this study evaluates the populated places that are within a 90 minute transfer time to a city with a catheterization facility. The three modes of transport considered in this study are ground ambulance, rotary wing air ambulance and fixed wing air ambulance.     

Investigating health effects in a community surrounding a road tunnel stack – a cross sectional study

Background  

Extended tunnelled roadways requiring ventilation via exhaust stacks are an increasingly common solution to traffic congestion around the world. In response to community concerns about adverse health effects associated with emissions from a new road tunnel exhaust stack, despite no demonstrable change in local ambient air quality, we conducted a cross sectional study to test for an association between exposure to the exhaust stack emissions and the presence of eye, nose and throat symptoms.     

The use of conspicuity aids by cyclists and risk of crashes involving other road users: a protocol for a population based case-control study

Background  

Regular cycling has been shown to improve health and has a role in tackling the threats posed by obesity and inactivity. Cycle collisions, particularly those involving motorised vehicles, can lead to significant mortality and morbidity and are currently a barrier to wider uptake of cycling. There is evidence that the conspicuity of cyclists is a factor in many injury collisions. Low-cost, easy to use retro-reflective and fluorescent clothing and accessories ('conspicuity aids') are available. Their effectiveness in reducing cycling collisions is unknown. The study is designed to investigate the relationship between the use of conspicuity aids and risk of collision or evasion crashes for utility and commuter cyclists in the UK.     

Injuries to pedal cyclists on New Zealand roads, 1988-2007

Background  

The risk of injury is one of the major barriers to engaging in cycling. We investigated exposure-based rates and profiles of traffic injuries sustained by pedal cyclists that resulted in death or hospital inpatient treatment in New Zealand, one of the most car dependent countries.     

Measurement of quality of life using EQ-5D in patients on prolonged mechanical ventilation: comparison of patients,family caregivers,and nurses

Purpose  

This study reports how QOL (quality of life) assessments differ between patients on prolonged mechanical ventilation (PMV) and their proxies (family caregivers and nurses).     

Drive time to cardiac rehabilitation: at what point does it affect utilization?

Background  

A 30 minute drive time threshold has often been cited as indicative of accessible health services. Cardiac rehabilitation (CR) is a chronic disease management program designed to enhance and maintain cardiovascular health, and geographic barriers to utilization are often cited. The purpose of this study was to empirically test the drive time threshold for CR utilization.     

火锅餐厅的空气质量

目的：了解火免餐厅营业中的空气卫生质量。方法：于冬季选择石嘴山市35家以液化石油气为燃料的火锅餐厅，主要调查通风状况，微小气候及空气卫生质量，并对营业前后不同通风情况下空气中CO浓度进行比较。结果：CO污染最严重，超标率高达63．64％，温，湿度合格率仅20％和12％，雅间关闭窗打开空调及换气扇，点燃火锅30min后CO为34．3mg/m^3，而关闭火锅开门窗10－15min后CO为6．35mg/m^3，就餐者头晕，头痛等不适症状出现率在CO＞15mg/m^3时为70．8％，在CO＜15mg/m^3时仅9．1％，结论：火锅餐厅主要空气污染物为CO。     

Reducing burden of disease from residential indoor air exposures in Europe (HEALTHVENT project)

Background

The annual burden of disease caused indoor air pollution, including polluted outdoor air used to ventilate indoor spaces, is estimated to correspond to a loss of over 2 million healthy life years in the European Union (EU). Based on measurements of the European Environment Agency (EEA), approximately 90 % of EU citizens live in areas where the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for air quality of particulate matter sized?<?2.5 mm (PM_2.5) are not met. Since sources of pollution reside in both indoor and outdoor air, selecting the most appropriate ventilation strategy is not a simple and straightforward task.

Methods

A framework for developing European health-based ventilation guidelines was created in 2010–2013 in the EU-funded HEALTHVENT project. As a part of the project, the potential efficiency of control policies to health effects caused by residential indoor exposures of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), outdoor bioaerosols, volatile organic compounds (VOC), carbon oxide (CO) radon and dampness was estimated. The analysis was based on scenario comparison, using an outdoor-indoor mass-balance model and varying the ventilation rates. Health effects were estimated with burden of diseases (BoD) calculations taking into account asthma, cardiovascular (CV) diseases, acute toxication, respiratory infections, lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Results

The quantitative comparison of three main policy approaches, (i) optimising ventilation rates only; (ii) filtration of outdoor air; and (iii) indoor source control, showed that all three approaches are able to provide substantial reductions in the health risks, varying from approximately 20 % to 44 %, corresponding to 400 000 and 900 000 saved healthy life years in EU-26. PM_2.5 caused majority of the health effects in all included countries, but the importance of the other pollutants varied by country.

Conclusions

The present modelling shows, that combination of controlling the indoor air sources and selecting appropriate ventilation rate was the most effective to reduce health risks. If indoor sources cannot be removed or their emissions cannot be limited to an accepted level, ventilation needs to be increased to remove remaining pollutants. In these cases filtration of outdoor air may be needed to prevent increase of health risks.

     

The relationship of air pollution and surrogate markers of endothelial dysfunction in a population-based sample of children

Background  

This study aimed to assess the relationship of air pollution and plasma surrogate markers of endothelial dysfunction in the pediatric age group.     

Spatiotemporal analysis of air pollution and asthma patient visits in Taipei, Taiwan

Background  

Buffer analyses have shown that air pollution is associated with an increased incidence of asthma, but little is known about how air pollutants affect health outside a defined buffer. The aim of this study was to better understand how air pollutants affect asthma patient visits in a metropolitan area. The study used an integrated spatial and temporal approach that included the Kriging method and the Generalized Additive Model (GAM).     

A study of indoor carbon dioxide levels and sick leave among office workers

Background  

A previous observational study detected a strong positive relationship between sick leave absences and carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations in office buildings in the Boston area. The authors speculated that the observed association was due to a causal effect associated with low dilution ventilation, perhaps increased airborne transmission of respiratory infections. This study was undertaken to explore this association.     

Air pollution exposure during pregnancy and reduced birth size: a prospective birth cohort study in Valencia,Spain

Background  

Maternal exposure to air pollution has been related to fetal growth in a number of recent scientific studies. The objective of this study was to assess the association between exposure to air pollution during pregnancy and anthropometric measures at birth in a cohort in Valencia, Spain.     

The association between low level exposures to ambient air pollution and term low birth weight: a retrospective cohort study

Background  

Studies in areas with relatively high levels of air pollution have found some positive associations between exposures to ambient levels of air pollution and several birth outcomes including low birth weight (LBW). The purpose of this study was to examine the association between LBW among term infants and ambient air pollution, by trimester of exposure, in a region of lower level exposures.     

The exposure of cyclists,car drivers and pedestrians to traffic-related air pollutants

Volunteers provided with personal air sampling (PAS) equipment covered concurrently, by car or bicycle, various selected routes. These comprised two inner city routes in Amsterdam (ICR 1 and 2) as well as a route including a tunnel on a busy highway (TR) and a rural route just south of Amsterdam (RR). A third inner city route, a busy narrow street, was subsequently also selected, and covered by bicycle or walking (ICR 3). Each run lasted about 1 h; the sampling time on the TR route was approximately 30min. The sampling periods in January and May lasted 2 weeks with four sampling days per week. In August only ICR 3 was covered, this sampling period lasted 2 days. CO, NO₂, benzene, toluene and xylenes were measured in the personal air samples. A monitoring vehicle covered the routes concurrently and measured CO, NO₂ and pm₁₀ (semi) continuously. Lead and PAH content in pm₁₀ was determined. The ventilation of the volunteers was measured while they were using a car or a bicycle. The route and the type of transport influenced (P < 0.001) the concentrations of CO, benzene, toluene and xylenes. The daily average temperature was positively associated with the exposure of car drivers and cyclists to most compounds measured. A volunteer exhaled on average 2.3 times more air as a cyclist than as a car driver. Despite the much higher concentrations in the personal air samples of car drivers, the uptake of CO, benzene, toluene and xylenes of cyclists sometimes approached that of the car drivers. The uptake of NO₂ of cyclists was clearly higher than that of car drivers.     

Non-sensitising air pollution at workplaces and adult-onset asthma in the beginning of this millennium

Purpose  

This case–control study was undertaken to elucidate the controversy concerning whether low-level, long-term exposure to non-sensitising air pollution at workplaces may cause asthma.     

Long-term exposure to air pollution and hospital admissions for ischemic stroke. A register-based case-control study using modelled NOx as exposure proxy

Background  

Long-term exposure to air pollution is a hypothesized risk factor for ischemic stroke. In a large case-control study with a complete study base, we investigated whether hospital admissions for ischemic stroke were associated with residential concentrations of outdoor NO_x, as a proxy for exposure to air pollution, in the region of Scania, Southern Sweden.