Influence of aging and cell senescence on telomerase activity in keratinocytes

Telomeres, which exist in eukaryotic chromosome ends in specialized G-rich TTAGGG structure, protect the ends from degradation or fusion. On the other hand, telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein complex enzyme that synthesizes TTAGGG repeat sequences at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. Previous studies suggested that telomere length and telomerase activity cooperate in aging and immortalization of cells. Here, we examined telomere length and telomerase activity in keratinocytes from seven human subjects, including a patient with Werner's syndrome. Telomere length in keratinocytes from healthy individuals was shortened with aging. However, telomerase activity from an individual aged 42 years was reduced, compared with that from a 0 year old individual. Passages of keratinocytes reduced telomerase activity significantly in F2 and F3 keratinocytes from 0 and 42 year old individuals. Withdrawal of either EGF or amphiregulin from medium resulted in down-regulation of telomerase activity. These results suggest that telomere length and telomerase activity in primary cultured keratinocytes may be one of the parameters for cell senescence. However, there remain obscure factors such as ultraviolet-B radiation and growth factors.     

Expression of 38-kD cell-surface glycoprotein in transformed human keratinocyte cell lines, basal cell carcinomas, and epithelial germs

In this study, we attempted to identify and characterize transformation-induced cell-surface glycoproteins of human keratinocytes. Therefore, we first searched for glycoproteins which are significantly elevated in human keratinocytes after transformation and immortalization by SV40 virus and which are also found at high levels in keratinocytic cell lines derived from squamous cell carcinomas of the skin. Out of at least 80 different cell-surface antigenic systems of human tumor cells, only three glycoproteins showed elevated expression in transformed keratinocytes. Among these, a 38-kD glycoprotein (gp 38) was highly increased in all transformed keratinocyte cell lines tested, but was not elevated in transformed fibroblasts. The expression of gp 38 was further characterized in normal epidermis and in its benign and malignant hyperproliferative disorders: gp 38 was generally not expressed in normal epidermis and in benign hyperproliferative disorders. In contrast, strong and homogeneous reactivity was found in solid and fibrosing basal cell carcinomas whereas no or low reactivity was detected in squamous cell carcinomas and in those parts of BCC revealing keratotic differentiation. Interestingly, high expression of gp 38 was also found in primary epithelial germs of fetal skin, secondary germ cells of the telogenic hair follicle and secretory tubules of sweat glands. The immunohistologic data suggest that gp 38 is preferentially expressed by epidermal cells which lack squamous and pilosebaceous differentiation.     

Regulation of epidermal growth factor receptor expression in normal and transformed keratinocytes

Summary Transformed keratinocytes (SCC-4, SCC-15, SCC-12F2, SVK14) or normal keratinocytes which differ in their differentiation programme were used to study the regulation of EGF-receptor expression. The capacity of the cells to differentiate was modulated by changing the extracellular calcium concentration. We were able to demonstrate that EGF-receptor expression in normal and transformed keratinocytes depends upon the cell type and one or more levels of regulatory control. At the DNA level, EGF-receptor gene amplification occurred in poorly differentiating cells. At the mRNA level, cells showing EGF-receptor gene amplification expressed elevated mRNA and protein levels when cultured under low Ca²⁺ conditions. Cells not exhibiting EGF-receptor gene amplification showed equal mRNA expression, regardless the Ca²⁺ concentration in the culture medium. At the protein level, EGF-receptor protein was decreased in cells exhibiting EGF-receptor gene amplification when extracellular Ca²⁺ was increased (to 1.6 mM) to stimulate differentiation, the decrease in protein being comparable to mRNA expression. Cells not exhibiting EGF-receptor gene amplification showed equal protein expression, regardless of the Ca²⁺ concentration in the culture medium. Under the same conditions, SV40 transformed keratinocytes showed equal mRNA but elevated protein expression in cells grown under low Ca²⁺ conditions. At the membrane level, normal keratinocytes and SCC-12F2 cells showed elevated numbers of cell surface exposed EGF-receptors in cells grown under low Ca²⁺ conditions, but equal mRNA and protein expression. These and previous findings demonstrate that EGF-receptor expression is regulated at the levels of DNA, mRNA and protein as well as by the plasma membrane composition, depending upon the cell type.     

结合珠蛋白在正常人表皮细胞及HaCaT细胞中的表达

目的 检测正常人表皮细胞及HaCaT细胞中结合珠蛋白(Hp)mRNA及蛋白的表达。方法 用原位杂交及RT-PCR法检测正常人表皮细胞及HacaT细胞中Hp mRNA的表达，用免疫组化法检测正常人表皮中Hp的表达；用免疫组化法及蛋白质免疫印迹法检测HaCaT细胞中Hp的表达。结果 在正常人表皮角质形成细胞(KC)及HaCaT细胞中Hp mRNA表达阳性；正常人表皮朗格汉斯细胞(LC)中Hp mRNA表达阴性；正常人表皮内可见Hp阳性的树突状细胞。用免疫组化法在每个HaCaT细胞胞质中未见明显Hp染色，但用蛋白质免疫印迹法在HacaT细胞中检测到Hp蛋白。结论 正常人KC及HaCaT细胞有合成Hp能力，正常人表皮LC无合成Hp的能力，在HaCaT细胞中有少量Hp表达。     

Serum factors regulate the expression of the proliferation-related genes α5 integrin and keratin 1, but not keratin 10, in HaCaT keratinocytes

Abstract In the highly coordinated programme of gene expression during keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation, ·5 integrin and keratins 1 and 10 (K1/K10) may play important regulatory roles. We were interested in seeing whether, in continuously growing, immortalized HaCaT keratinocytes, similar to normal keratinocytes, the expression of ·5 integrin and K1/K10 was related to cell proliferation and differentiation. After release from cell quiescence the expression of ·5 integrin, both at the mRNA and protein levels, was upregulated in the cells. At the same time, K1/K10 mRNA and protein expression decreased dramatically, while the mRNA for D1 cyclin became detectable, and the cells became highly proliferative. These findings indicate that ·5 integrin and K1/K10 are involved in the regulation of HaCaT proliferation and differentiation, as in normal keratinocytes. However, HaCaT cells are different from normal keratinocytes in their ability to lose K1/K10 expression. There is no evidence that the expression of K1/K10 can be reversed in normal keratinocytes. This ability of dedifferentiation might be a unique feature of HaCaT cells and may be a key component of their immortalized nature. We also found that serum factors regulate mRNA expression of ·5 integrin and K1, but not of K10, in HaCaT cells. This information could be relevant to the understanding of normal epidermal differentiation. Received: 28 August 2000 / Revised: 27 October 2000 / Accepted: 3 February 2001     

mRNA for tissue-type plasminogen activator is present in lesional epidermis from patients with psoriasis, pemphigus, or bullous pemphigoid, but is not detected in normal epidermis

Plasminogen activator (PA), which catalyzes the conversion of plasminogen to the proteinase plasmin, has been implicated in a variety of cutaneous disorders. Lesional epidermis from patients with psoriasis, pemphigus, bullous pemphigoid, and Hailey-Hailey disease contains elevated levels of tissue-type PA (tPA) activity compared to non-lesional epidermis or to epidermis from normal individuals. In the present study, we have used Northern blot analysis to demonstrate that mRNA for tPA is detectable in lesions from patients with psoriasis, pemphigus, and bullous pemphigoid, but is not detectable in normal epidermis. These data strongly suggest that the tPA enzymatic activity present in lesional epidermis results from enhanced synthesis of the enzyme in situ, secondary to elevated steady-state levels of tPA mRNA. Cultured keratinocytes likewise are shown to contain tPA mRNA. Previous investigators have suggested that the phenotypes of keratinocytes in culture, psoriatic epidermis, and epidermis in the process of wound reepithelialization are comparable. Our findings, combined with those of other investigators, suggest that elevated tPA expression may be another common feature of epidermis under these circumstances.     

Correlation of donor age and telomerase activity with in vitro cell growth and replicative potential for dermal fibroblasts and keratinocytes

Previous studies suggested telomerase activity as a determinant of cell replicative capacity by delaying cell senescence. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of adopting telomerase activity as a selection criterion for in vitro expanded skin cells before autologous transplantation. Fibroblasts and keratinoctyes were derived from the same consenting patients aged 9–69 years, and cultured separately in serum-supplemented and serum-free media, respectively. Telomerase activity of fresh and cultured cells were measured and correlated with cell growth rate, donor age and passage number. The results showed that telomerase activity and cell growth were independent of donor age for both cell types. Telomerase was expressed in freshly digested epidermis and dermis and continued expressing in vitro. Keratinocytes consistently showed 3–12 folds greater telomerase activity than fibroblast both in vivo and in vitro. Conversely, growth rate for fibroblast exceeded that of keratinocyte. Telomerase activity decreased markedly at Passage 6 for keratinocytes and ceased by Passage 3 for fibroblasts. The decrease or cessation of telomerase activity coincided with senescence for keratinocyte but not for fibroblast, implying a telomerase-regulated cell senescence for the former and hence a predictor of replicative capacity for this cell type. Relative telomerase activity for fibroblasts from the younger age group was significantly higher than that from the older age group; 69.7% higher for fresh isolates and 31.1% higher at P0 (p < 0.05). No detectable telomerase activity was to be found at later subcultures for both age groups. Similarly for keratinocytes, telomerase activity in the younger age group was significantly higher (p < 0.05) compared to that in the older age group; 507.7% at P0, 36.8% at P3 and the difference was no longer significant at P6. In conclusion, the study provided evidence that telomerase sustained the proliferation of keratinocytes but not fibroblasts. Telomerase activity is an important criterion for continued survival and replication of keratinocytes, hence its positive detection before transplantation is desirable. Inferring from our results, the use of keratinocytes from Passage 3 or lesser for construction of skin substitute or cell-based therapy is recommended owing to their sustained telomerase expression.     

寻常性银屑病皮损端粒酶RNA、反转录酶mRNA表达

目的探讨端粒酶RNA(hTR)和反转录酶(hTERT)在银屑病皮损中的表达情况以及它们与角质形成细胞增殖关系。方法应用原位杂交方法检测银屑病皮损hTR、hTERTmRNA的表达,应用免疫组织化学方法检测Ki-67抗原表达,并对hTR、hTERTmRNA的表达与Ki-67抗原表达进行相关性分析。结果hTR表达在基底细胞、棘细胞、颗粒层细胞和所有有核细胞的胞浆,与细胞的增殖情况无关;其表达强度和阳性细胞百分率各组之间无明显差异(P>0.05)。而hTERT的表达与细胞增殖状态有关,主要表达在基底细胞层和棘细胞层下方,表达强度和阳性细胞百分率要明显高于正常皮肤(P<0.05)。Ki-67抗原主要表达在细胞生发层和分裂旺盛的组织;它的表达与hTERT的表达呈正相关(r=0.674,P<0.01);而与hTR(r=-0.295,P>0.05)无关。结论hTERTmRNA在银屑病皮损中的表达明显升高,与细胞增殖活性有关。hTR的表达和细胞增殖活性无关。     

Increased release of the tumour necrosis factor receptor p75 by immortalized human keratinocytes results from an activated shedding mechanism and is not related to augmented steady-state levels of p75 mRNA

The soluble tumour necrosis factor receptor I (sTNFRI, p55) is produced at similar levels by both immortalized (A431, HaCaT, KB) and primary normal human keratinocytes (HNK), whereas the soluble TNFR II (sTNFR II, p75) appears to be specifically released only by immortalized human keratinocytes. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the increase in p75 secretion by immortalized human keratinocytes is due to an increased shedding of the receptor from the cell membrane, or is related to increased steady-state levels of p75 mRNA. FACS analysis showed that levels of membranous p75 decreased in a time-dependent manner in immortalized cells cultured for 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h, while remaining unchanged in HNK throughout. Northern blot analysis showed that after 12 h of culture, when p75 expression was decreased on the cell membrane of all immortalized cells, there was no significant difference in steady state levels of p75 mRNA between immortalized keratinocytes and HNK. Supernatants of immortalized cells, cultured for 24 h contained distinct levels of p75, while levels of p75 in supernatants of HNK were under the detection limit, confirming that the p75 decrease on the cell membrane results from increased p75 shedding from the cell membrane of immortalized cells. In contrast to p75, p55 was continuously expressed on the cell membrane of normal and immortalized keratinocytes without significant variation throughout the entire 24-h culture period and was similarly shed by both cell types. These results suggest that immortalized keratinocytes are specifically activated for shedding of p75 from the cell membrane. Since p75 has a high affinity for TNF, the release of this receptor may imply a direct role in the escape of malignant/transformed keratinocytes from the TNF-mediated immune response. Received: 25 January 1996     

Epidermolysis bullosa simplex keratinocytes with extended lifespan established by ectopic expression of telomerase

As part of a strategy to develop somatic gene therapy of epidermolysis bullosa simplex (EBS) we have established patient keratinocytes with expanded lifespan by ectopic expression of the human telomerase gene (hTert). The presence of an active telomerase enzyme was demonstrated by the telomerase repeat amplification protocol (TRAP). The hTert(+) cells have a normal karyotype and the cells have, until now, undergone more than 80 population doublings (PDs) after hTert retroviral transduction while control cells exhibited senescence-associated proliferation arrest after 8 PDs. In organotypic culture the hTert(+) cells are capable of forming a stratified epidermis illustrating their preserved ability to differentiate.     

UV Induces GADD45 in a p53-Dependent and -Independent Manner in Human Keratinocytes

BACKGROUND: GADD45 is a multifunctional protein involved in DNA repair and in cell cycle checkpoint control. p53 plays an important role in regulating DNA repair and in response to UVB in keratinocytes. Objective: GADD45 and p53 expression was examined and compared at the mRNA and protein level after exposure to UV irradiation. METHODS: Human keratinocytes were exposed to increasing doses of UVB, and an RNA protection assay and a Western blot analysis were performed. RESULTS: The RNase protection assays using human keratinocytes showed that GADD45 mRNA increases after 4 h and remains elevated for 24 h in cells irradiated at 100, 300, or 600 J/m2 UVB. The level of GADD45 protein increases after 8 h and remains elevated for 48 h, with maximal induction at 300 J/m2. p53 mRNA did not rise in concert with GADD45 at any dose used, and p53 protein was not up-regulated at the lower dose of 100 J/m2. CONCLUSION: GADD45 is regulated in both a p53-dependent and a p53-independent manner in keratinocytes after UV exposure.     

Toll样受体2对人角质形成细胞增殖的影响

目的 探讨Toll样受体2(TLR2)对体外培养人角质形成细胞增殖的影响.方法 天然配体肽聚糖(PGN)体外活化人角质形成细胞TLR2,用噻唑蓝法检测PGN对角质形成细胞体外增殖的影响,确定最适作用浓度;用实时荧光定量PCR法和Western印迹法分别检测角质形成细胞Ki67、TLR2、核因子(NF)-KBp65及转化生长因子(TGF)-α mRNA和蛋白的表达水平;采用抗体封闭实验分析封闭TLR2对PGN诱导角质形成细胞Ki67、TLR2、NF-KBp65及TGF-α表达的影响.结果 不同浓度的PGN处理角质形成细胞后24 h,在1.25,2.5,5 μg/mL的浓度下细胞较对照组出现明显增殖(P＜0.05). 1.25、2.5和5μg/mL PGN作用于角质形成细胞后24 h,其中1.25和2.5 μg/mL浓度下Ki67 mRNA的表达明显增加,各组Ki67蛋白合成均有增加;各组TLR2 mRNA和蛋白的表达均增加;1.25μg/mL浓度下NF-KBp65 mRNA的表达明显增加,各组细胞核内NF-KBp65蛋白合成均增加;其中1.25和5 μg/mL浓度下TGF-α mRNA和蛋白表达均明显增加(P＜0.05).以抗人TLR2单克隆阻断性抗体封闭TLR2后,PGN诱导的角质形成细胞Ki67、TI,R2、NF-KBp65及TGF-α mRNA和蛋白表达的上调均受到明显抑制(P＜0.05).结论 角质形成细胞TLR2经PGN诱导活化后,可能通过促进NF-KB活化及TGF-α表达而导致角质形成细胞的异常增殖.     

Co-regulation of p16INK4A and migratory genes in culture conditions that lead to premature senescence in human keratinocytes

Cellular stasis, also known as telomere-independent senescence, prevents many epithelial cells from becoming immortalized by telomerase alone. As human keratinocytes age in culture, protein levels of the tumor suppressor p16INK4a continue to increase, resulting in growth arrest independent of telomere length. Differences in culture conditions have been shown to modulate both p16INK4a expression and replicative capacity of human keratinocytes; however, the mechanism of p16INK4a induction under these conditions is unknown. Using multiple primary keratinocyte cell strains, we verified a delay in p16INK4a induction and an extended lifespan of human keratinocytes when grown in co-culture with post-mitotic fibroblast feeder cells as compared with keratinocytes grown on tissue culture plastic alone. Evaluation of gene expression levels in the two culture conditions by microarray analysis, and subsequent validation, demonstrated that keratinocytes cultured on plastic alone had significantly increased expression of many genes involved in keratinocyte migration and reduced expression levels of genes involved in keratinocyte differentiation. Higher levels of p16INK4a expression were present in cells that also displayed increased amounts of autophosphorylated focal adhesion kinase and urokinase plaminogen activator receptor (uPAR), both markers of keratinocyte migration. Furthermore, when tyrosine phosphorylation or urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA)/uPAR function was inhibited, both keratinocyte migration and p16INK4a expression were reduced. Our results indicate that keratinocytes cultured in the absence of feeder cells exhibit a migratory phenotype and suggest that p16INK4a is selectively induced under these conditions by a mechanism involving tyrosine kinase activity and the urokinase plasminogen activation system.     

他扎罗汀诱导前后角质形成细胞TIG 3 mRNA表达

目的研究他扎罗汀对培养的正常人角质形成细胞增殖和他扎罗汀诱导基因3(TIG3)mRNA表达的影响。方法用0.1和1.0μmol/L他扎罗汀处理正常人角质形成细胞24h后,用MTT法、RT-PCR和实时定量RT-PCR(TaqMan探针)法分别检测细胞增殖和TIG3mRNA表达的改变。结果他扎罗汀可抑制角质形成的增殖和诱导TIG3mRNA的表达。0.1和1.0μmol/L他扎罗汀处理角质形成细胞后,分别使角质形成细胞增殖抑制5.0%和11.1%,使TIG3mRNA增加到正常对照组的2.1倍和2.8倍。结论他扎罗汀可抑制角质形成细胞的增殖和上调TIG3mRNA的表达。