Determination of the mutation spectrum of the EXT1/EXT2 genes in British Caucasian patients with multiple osteochondromas, and exclusion of six candidate genes in EXT negative cases

We describe here the spectrum and distribution of mutations in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes in the largest reported British Caucasian multiple osteochondromas (MO) population. Furthermore, we report for the first time the screening of the EXT1 and EXT2 promoters, 5'UTRs, and 3'UTRs, and exclude six potential MO candidate genes in individuals without a detectable mutation within the coding region of EXT1 and EXT2. The coding exons of EXT1 and EXT2 were screened in 72 unrelated probands affected with MO. Forty-six different mutations were identified in 56 probands, of which 29 were novel. Mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes each accounted for 50% of the mutations identified. Of the 72 probands, 42 were of British Caucasian descent, which when added to the 41 British Caucasian families previously reported from our total cohort, gave a total of 83 families. This cohort's proportional frequency for EXT1/EXT2 mutation was 53%/47%. We also validated the technique of high-resolution melting analysis in a blind study using 27 unique EXT1 or EXT2 mutations. This technique was found to be sensitive with a detection rate of 100% regarding heterozygote detection for EXT mutation scanning. Furthermore, this technique has a very high throughput and is very cost-effective.     

EXT2基因突变引起的多发性骨软骨瘤的遗传学及表型分析

目的: 对2个多发性骨软骨瘤(multiple exostoses)小家系中的先证者进行致病基因 EXT1 和 EXT2 编码序列的突变检测,寻找致病性突变。 方法: 应用PCR扩增 EXT1 和 EXT2 基因的编码区及外显子-内含子交界区,对产物进行直接测序。在50个正常对照中进行新发现突变位点的PCR测序分析,以排除多态性。结果: 家系1的先证者检测到1个 EXT2 基因的已知突变c.668G>C(p.Arg223Pro),该错义突变使精氨酸变成脯氨酸;家系2的先证者于 EXT2 基因中检测到1个国际数据库中尚未报道的新突变c.950delT(p.Phe317SerfsX15),患者父母均未检测到此突变,故此突变为一个de novo突变。该突变引起开放阅读框架移位,提前引入终止密码子,导致蛋白质分子的截断,即部分exostosin结构域和全部glyco-transf-64结构域的丢失。结论: 本文发现的 EXT2 基因的新生及已知突变是引起本研究中多发性骨软骨瘤患者发病的分子机制,可用于临床的分子诊断。     

Germline mutations in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes in Korean patients with hereditary multiple exostoses

Hereditary multiple exostoses (EXT) is an autosomal dominantly inherited disease characterized by the formation of cartilage-capped prominences (exostoses) that develop from the juxtaepiphyseal regions of the long bones. Recently, EXT1 and EXT2 genes were cloned and germline mutations of EXT1 and EXT2 were identified in EXT families. In this study, we performed a mutational analysis of EXT1 and EXT2 genes in eight unrelated Korean EXT families by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis followed by direct DNA sequencing. As a result, we were able to identify one family (SNU-OC3) with the EXT1 mutation and another family (SNU-OC15) with the EXT2 mutation. The EXT1 mutation was a 10-bp deletion at the 3′ end of exon 5 (CTAATTTAGg) including the splice site of this exon. The EXT2 mutation identified in the SNU-OC15 family was a missense mutation at codon 85 of exon 2 (T_GC ? C_GC), resulting in an amino acid change from cysteine to arginine. This missense mutation cosegregated with the disease phenotype in this family, suggesting that it is the disease-causing mutation. These two mutations identified in EXT1 and EXT2 are novel ones.     

Mutation frequencies of EXT1 and EXT2 in 43 Japanese families with hereditary multiple exostoses

Hereditary multiple exostoses (EXT) is an autosomal dominant bone disease characterized by the formation of cartilage‐capped prominences. EXT is genetically heterogeneous with at least four chromosomal loci. Among the four loci, the exostosis type 1 gene (EXT1) and type 2 gene (EXT2) have been cloned. Previous studies have shown that disease‐type‐specific frequency of mutations is different among various ethnic populations. To determine those frequencies in the Japanese, we conducted a large‐scale mutation screening on both genes. In 23 of 43 Japanese families examined, we found 21 different mutations, of which 18 are novel. Seventeen (40%) of the 23 families had a mutation in EXT1 and six (14%) had a mutation in EXT2, suggesting that the former mutations are more frequent than the latter in Japanese EXT families. Of the 17 families with EXT1 mutations, 13 had those causing premature termination of the EXT1 protein and four showed missense mutations, whereas five of the six families with EXT2 mutations had those causing premature termination and one showed missense mutation. Interestingly, all four EXT1 missense mutations occurred in an arginine residue at codon 340 (R340) that is known as a critical site for expression of heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans, suggesting that the region encompassing the arginine residue may play an important role in the function of the EXT1 protein. These results expand our knowledge of the ethnic difference of EXT and the structure‐function relationship of the EXT genes. © Wiley‐Liss. Inc.     

Identification of a novel mutation in EXT2 in a fourth‐generation Korean family with multiple osteochondromas and overview of mutation spectrum

Multiple osteochondromas (MOs) or hereditary multiple exostoses is a rare autosomal‐dominant disease characterized by growths of MOs, which are benign cartilage‐capped bone tumors that grow away from the growth plates. Almost 90% of MOs have a molecular explanation and 10% are unexplained. MOs are genetically heterogeneous with two causal genes on 8q24.11 (EXT1) and 11p12 (EXT2), with a higher frequency in EXT1. MO is a very rare genetic disorder, and the genotype–phenotype of MO with EXT2 mutation has not been well investigated in Korea. We present the clinical radiographic and molecular analysis of a four‐generation Korean family with 11 MO‐affected members (seven males and four females). The affected members from the third generation available for molecular analysis and their detailed medical histories showed moderate‐to‐severe phenotypes (clinical classes II–III), including bony deformities and limb misalignment with pain requiring surgical correction. The x‐rays showed MOs in multiple sites. A novel EXT2 frameshift mutation (c.590delC, p.P197Qfs*73) was revealed by targeted exome sequencing in the affected members of this family. In this article, we not only expand the phenotypic–genotypic spectrum of MOs but also highlight the phenotypic heterogeneity in a family with the same mutation. In addition, we compiled the mutation spectrum of EXT2 from a literature review and identified that exon 2 of EXT2 is a mutation hot spot. Early medical attention with diagnosis of MO through careful examination of the clinical manifestations and genetic analysis can provide the opportunity to establish coordinated multispecialty management of the patient.     

山西汉族遗传性多发性骨软骨瘤家系EXT1及EXT2基因突变研究

目的 对山西一个汉族遗传性多发性骨软骨瘤家系的EXT1和EXT2基因的全部外显子序列进行分析,以寻找致病突变.方法 用PCR扩增先证者EXT1和EXT2基因的全部外显子,将PCR产物送直接测序分析.结果 发现EXT1基因2种同义突变(P477P、E587E)、3种内含子突变(c.1537-48A＞G、c.1721 +203 A＞G、c.1722-103 C＞G).EXT2基因共发现5种内含子突变(c.-29-148 A＞T、c.1080-18 T＞A、c.1336-93 C＞T、c.1526-166 C＞T、c.1526-195C＞T).其中,EXT1 P477P、EXT1 E587E和EXT2 c.1080-18 T＞A为多发性骨软骨瘤突变数据库已收录的多态位点,其余7个位点尚未见报道.结论 对该家系EXT1、EXT2基因全部外显子的测序分析未发现明确的致病突变,该家系遗传性多发性骨软骨瘤的发生是否由除EXT1、EXT2外的其它EXT相关基因引起尚需进一步的连锁定位分析.     

Novel mutations in the EXT1 gene in two consanguineous families affected with multiple hereditary exostoses (familial osteochondromatosis)

Multiple hereditary exostoses (HME) is an autosomal dominant developmental disorder exhibiting multiple osteocartilaginous bone tumors that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones. Here, we report two large consanguineous families from Pakistan, who display the typical features of HME. Affected individuals also show a previously unreported feature--bilateral overriding of single toes. Analysis using microsatellite markers for each of the known EXT loci, EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 showed linkage to EXT1. In the first family, mutation analysis of the EXT1 gene revealed that affected individuals were heterozygous for an in-frame G-to-C transversion at the conserved splice donor site in intron 1. This mutation is predicted to disrupt splicing of the first intron and produce a frameshift that leads to a premature termination codon. In the second family, an insertion of an A in exon 8 is predicted to produce a frameshift at codon 555 followed by a premature termination, a further 10 codons downstream. In both families, an increased number of affected male subjects were observed. In affected females in family 2, phenotypic variability and incomplete penetrance were noted.     

Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb)

Multiple osteochondromas (MO) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disease characterized by the formation of multiple cartilage-capped bone tumors growing outward from the metaphyses of long tubular bones. MO is genetically heterogeneous, and is associated with mutations in Exostosin-1 (EXT1) or Exostosin-2 (EXT2), both tumor-suppressor genes of the EXT gene family. All members of this multigene family encode glycosyltransferases involved in the adhesion and/or polymerization of heparin sulfate (HS) chains at HS proteoglycans (HSPGs). HSPGs have been shown to play a role in the diffusion of Ihh, thereby regulating chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation. EXT1 is located at 8q24.11–q24.13, and comprises 11 exons, whereas the 16 exon EXT2 is located at 11p12–p11. To date, an EXT1 or EXT2 mutation is detected in 70–95% of affected individuals. EXT1 mutations are detected in ±65% of cases, versus ±35% EXT2 mutations in MO patient cohorts. Inactivating mutations (nonsense, frame shift, and splice-site mutations) represent the majority of MO causing mutations (75–80%). In this article, the clinical aspects and molecular genetics of EXT1 and EXT2 are reviewed together with 895 variants in MO patients. An overview of the reported variants is provided by the online Multiple Osteochondromas Mutation Database ( http://medgen.ua.ac.be/LOVD ). Hum Mutat 30:1–8, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Decreased EXT expression and intracellular accumulation of heparan sulphate proteoglycan in osteochondromas and peripheral chondrosarcomas

Mutational inactivation of EXT1 or EXT2 is the cause of hereditary multiple osteochondromas. These genes function in heparan sulphate proteoglycan (HSPG) biosynthesis in the Golgi apparatus. Loss of heterozygosity of the EXT1 locus at 8q24 is frequently found in solitary osteochondromas, whereas somatic mutations are rarely found. We investigated the expression of EXT1 and EXT2 (quantitative RT-PCR) and of different HSPGs (immunohistochemistry) in solitary and hereditary osteochondromas and in cases with malignant progression to secondary peripheral chondrosarcoma, in relation to possible mutations and promoter methylation. The mutation status of patients with multiple osteochondromas correlated with decreased EXT1 or EXT2 expression found in their resected tumours. We could not show somatic point mutations or promoter hypermethylation in 17 solitary tumours; however, EXT1 expression was decreased in 15 cases, whereas EXT2 was not. Intracellular accumulation of syndecan-2 and heparan sulphate-bearing isoforms of CD44 (CD44v3) was found in most tumours, which concentrated in the Golgi apparatus as shown by confocal microscopy. This contrasted with the extracellular expression found in normal growth plates. In conclusion, mutational inactivation of either EXT1 or EXT2 leads to loss of mRNA expression of the corresponding gene. We hypothesize that loss of EXT expression disrupts the function of the EXT1/2 complex in HSPG biosynthesis, resulting in the intracellular accumulation of HSPG core proteins that we found in these tumours.     

An optimized DHPLC protocol for molecular testing of the EXT1 and EXT2 genes in hereditary multiple osteochondromas

Hereditary multiple osteochondromas (MO) is an autosomal dominant bone disorder characterized by the presence of bony outgrowths (osteochondromas or exostoses) on the long bones. MO is caused by mutations in the EXT1 or EXT2 genes, which encode glycosyltransferases implicated in heparan sulfate biosynthesis. Standard mutation analysis performed by sequencing analysis of all coding exons of the EXT1 and EXT2 genes reveals a mutation in approximately 80% of the MO patients. We have now optimized and validated a denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC)-based protocol for screening of all EXT1- and EXT2-coding exons in a set of 49 MO patients with an EXT1 or EXT2 mutation. Under the optimized DHPLC conditions, all mutations were detected. These include 20 previously described mutations and 29 new mutations - 20 new EXT1 and nine new EXT2 mutations. The protocol described here, therefore, provides a sensitive and cost-sparing alternative for direct sequencing analysis of the MO-causing genes.     

应用变性高效液相色谱技术检测三个遗传性多发性外生骨疣家系的EXT1与EXT2基因突变

目的建立一种应用变性高效液相色谱(denaturing high performance liquid chromatograph,DHPLC)技术检测遗传性多发性外生骨疣(hereditary multiple exostosis,EXT)基因突变的新方法,并研究3个EXT家系的基因突变情况。方法扩增EXT致病基因的所有外显子区及部分内含子与外显子交界区,联合连锁分析、DHPLC筛查及测序的方法进行分析。结果3个EXT家系中,共检测到两处已知EXT2基因的剪接位点突变IVS2 1G>A、IVS7 1G>T,一处28C>A变异和一处EXT1基因的IVS4 66G>A变异。结论EXT2基因的2个剪接位点突变分别是引起相应EXT家系的致病原因,应用DHPLC技术检测遗传性疾病基因变突是一种自动化、高通量、灵敏、快速且简便经济的好方法。     

一个遗传性多发性骨软骨瘤家系EXT1基因的突变分析CSCD

目的对1个遗传性多发性骨软骨瘤（hereditary multiple exostosis, HME）家系的先证者进行候选致病基因EXTI和EXT2的所有外显子检测,以寻找该HEM家系的致病性突变。方法应用PCR技术扩增EXT1、EXT2的全部外显子并进行直接Sanger测序分析。结果测序结果显示先证者EXT1基因第4外显子存在e．1202de1T（P．1401Tfs＊2）杂合缺失突变,该突变导致401位后的编码氨基酸发生移码,并在第402位引入终止密码,使EXTl编码的全长746氨基酸组成的蛋白质缩减至由402个氨基酸组成的截短型蛋白。该家系的其他6例患者均存在EXTle．1202delT的杂合移码突变,而表型正常家系成员未检测到该突变,符合基因型一表型共分离。未检测到EXT2基因的可疑突变。结论EXT1c．1202delT杂合移码突变是导致这个HME家系患者发病的分子机制。     

遗传性多发性骨软骨瘤的基因诊断及产前诊断

目的 研究家族遗传性骨软骨瘤病(hereditary multiple exostoses,HME)的致病基因及产前诊断.方法 应用连锁分析方法对一个HME家系EXT1、EXT2和EXT3基因进行分析.致病基因定位后,用PCR-测序法进行了突变分析.结果 在该家系中EXT2基因第6外显子发生1个新的无义突变(c.1006C>T),该突变导致第336位编码谷氨酰胺的密码子CAA变为终止密码子TAA(Gln336X).根据上述结果配合遗传咨询进行了产前诊断,结果显示胎儿正常.结论 在家族遗传性骨软骨瘤家系中发现一新的EXT2基因突变,并应用于产前诊断.     

Disclosing the Hidden Structure and Underlying Mutational Mechanism of a Novel Type of Duplication CNV Responsible for Hereditary Multiple Osteochondromas

The additional mutational complexity associated with copy number variation (CNV) can provide important clues as to the underlying mechanisms of CNV formation. Correct annotation of the additional mutational complexity is, however, a prerequisite for establishing the mutational mechanism. We illustrate this point through the characterization of a novel ～230 kb EXT1 duplication CNV causing autosomal dominant hereditary multiple osteochondromas. Whole‐genome sequencing initially identified the CNV as having a 22‐bp insertion at the breakpoint junction and, unprecedentedly, multiple breakpoint‐flanking micromutations on both sides of the duplication. Further investigation revealed that this genomic rearrangement had a duplication‐inverted triplication–duplication structure, the inverted triplication being a 41‐bp sequence synthesized from a nearby template. This permitted the identification of the sequence determinants of both the initiation (an inverted Alu repeat) and termination (a triplex‐forming sequence) of break‐induced replication and suggested a possible model for the repair of replication‐associated double‐strand breaks.     

多发性骨髓瘤与MHC-DRB1~*基因的相关研究

目的探讨北方地区汉族人多发性骨髓瘤(MM)与人类主要组织相容性复合体MHC-DRB1*基因多态性的关系。方法应用顺序特异性引物和聚合酶链反应(PCR-SSP)技术,对21例多发性骨髓瘤患者及32例无血缘关系的健康人的MHC-DRB1*各等位基因及亚基因进行了检测分析,并将该方法与其它检测MHC等位基因的方法进行对比。结果结果表明,MHC-DRB1*11(RR=2.36,P<0.05;MHC-DRB1*11基因与MM呈正相关,显著高于对照组,两组之间比较差异有显著性意义,而其它MHC-DRB1*各等位基因未见异常,均无统计学差异。结论本项研究结果提示,MHC-DRB1*11基因可能是我国北方汉族人MM致病的易感基因,为揭示MM的发病机制中免疫遗传学作用提供了重要信息和依据。     

Methylation status of EXT1 and EXT2 promoters and two mutations of EXT2 in chondrosarcoma

Germline mutation and functional loss of EXT1 or EXT2 are commonly found in multiple osteochondromas and predispose to the development of chondrosarcoma. Mutations of EXT1 and EXT2 have rarely been detected in sporadic secondary chondrosarcomas from osteochondroma; these frequently display loss of heterozygosity at the EXT1 and EXT2 loci, but primary chondrosarcomas typically do not. To evaluate promoter methylation (which is an epigenetic gene silencing mechanism) of EXT1 and EXT2, we performed methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for 20 chondrosarcoma cases (12 primary, 3 secondary to osteochondroma, 2 secondary to enchondromatosis, 2 extraskeletal ordinary, and 1 clear cell) and in five cell lines. In addition, mutation analysis of the EXT1 and EXT2 coding regions was performed using PCR-single-strand conformation polymorphism and sequencing analysis for 12 of the 20 chondrosarcoma cases (8 primary, 1 secondary to enchondromatosis, 1 secondary to osteochondroma, and 2 extraskeletal ordinary) and five cell lines. Promoter methylation of EXT1 and EXT2 was not detected in any of the cases, and both EXT1 and EXT2 were expressed in all cell lines. Two missense mutations in EXT2 (D227E and R299H) were detected among the chondrosarcoma cases. When considering tumor development in primary chondrosarcoma, we should include mutations in EXT2, along with the status of other members of the EXT gene family.     

肺栓塞患者血小板膜糖蛋白相关基因mRNA显著性差异表达的意义

目的:研究血小板膜糖蛋白在静脉血栓形成过程中的作用。方法:基因表达谱芯片检测肺栓塞(PTE)组与对照组血小板膜糖蛋白相关基因的mRNA表达水平及其差异。结果:PTE组血小板膜糖蛋白相关因子的mRNA表达与对照组显著差异(P0.05)者只占所测基因的45.45%。结论:血小板膜糖蛋白相关因子mRNA表达的差异性提示在静脉血栓形成过程中,血小板仅发挥少部分功能,支持了临床大规模试验所述的不提倡单独应用抗血小板药物治疗和预防静脉血栓性疾病的结论。     

遗传性多发性外生骨疣基因突变研究

目的进一步阐明遗传性多发性外生骨疣（ｈｅｒｅｄｉｔａｒｙｍｕｌｔｉｐｌｅｅｘｏｓｔｏｓｅｓ,ＥＸＴ）的发病机理,并为最终防治本病提供依据。方法采用聚合酶链反应－单链构象多态性分析,在３０个ＥＸＴ家系中进行ＥＸＴ１基因和ＥＸＴ２基因全部外显子突变检测,并对发现的致病突变进行ＤＮＡ测序分析。结果在２个家系中发现了致病突变,并经ＤＮＡ序列分析证实,一个系ＥＸＴ１基因ｅｘｏｎ６区域单个碱基（Ｔ）丢失;另一个系ＥＸＴ２基因ｅｘｏｎ２区域４个碱基（ｔｇｔ）丢失,前者系国内首次报道,后者系尚未见报道的新突变,这两种突变均系移码突变。结论ＥＸＴ１基因或ＥＸＴ２基因突变,可导致ＥＸＴ,本研究结果可直接应用于ＥＸＴ的遗传咨询和产前基因诊断。