Diabetes Mellitus and COVID-19: Review Article

Background and aimsWe aim to cover most of the current evidence on the mutual effect of diabetes & COVID-19 infection on each other and the management of the COVID-19 patients with diabetes.MethodsWe utilized databases to review the current evidence related to diabetes mellitus and COVID-19.ResultsWe discussed the most recent evidence of diabetes milieus and COVID-19 regarding risk factors, management, complications, and telemedicine.ConclusionDiabetes mellitus is associated with a significant risk of complications, extended hospital stays, and mortality in COVID-19 infected patients.     

老年糖尿病患者并发新型冠状病毒肺炎预后及其相关因素分析

目的分析老年糖尿病患者并发新型冠状病毒肺炎(COVID-19)的临床特征及其预后相关因素,为早期防治提供参考依据。 方法以2020年2月4日至2020年4月16日确诊的COVID-19 3 733例中伴有糖尿病的老年患者227例作为分析对象,采集患者一般资料、基础疾病、临床特征、实验室结果等信息,采用SPSS 23.0进行数据描述和分析。 结果227例老年糖尿病患者并发COVID-19被纳入分析,住院期间死亡16例,病死率为7.0%(16/227);单因素和多因素Logistic回归分析结果提示：肺部疾病、血糖、白细胞、中性粒细胞、肌酐、CKMB和呼吸困难是老年糖尿病并发COVID-19预后危险因素;采用这些因素预测老年糖尿病并发COVID-19死亡的ROC曲线下面积(AUC)为96.0%(95CI：91.0%~100.0%)。 结论老年人群中,糖尿病患者并发COVID-19的患者其预后风险较高,采用血糖和白细胞等因素预测COVID-19的预后具有临床意义。     

Diabetes self-management amid COVID-19 pandemic

Background and aimsCOVID-19 pandemic has challenged the physician-centered approach of diabetes care in India that is primarily based on routine clinic visits. We aim to review the various aspects of patient-centered care via diabetes self-management education based on available literature.MethodsThis is a narrative review using Pubmed, EMBASE and Google Scholar search till March 29, 2020. Search terms were “COVID-19”, “diabetes self-care”, “diabetes self-management education”, “DSME”, “diabetes self-management in India”, “diabetes self-care in India” and “DSME in India”.ResultsWe have discussed an educational plan on diabetes self-management that can be adopted for people with diabetes mellitus in our country amid the ongoing pandemic. We have also identified the barriers to diabetes self-management in the current scenario and suggested possible solutions to overcome those.ConclusionsWe have reemphasized the need for a simultaneous patient-centered approach in routine diabetes care that has to be coordinated by a multidisciplinary team amid the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.     

Biomarkers Predictive for In-Hospital Mortality in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus and Prediabetes Hospitalized for COVID-19 in Austria: An Analysis of COVID-19 in Diabetes Registry

Background: This study assessed the predictive performance of inflammatory, hepatic, coagulation, and cardiac biomarkers in patients with prediabetes and diabetes mellitus hospitalized for COVID-19 in Austria. Methods: This was an analysis of a multicenter cohort study of 747 patients with diabetes mellitus or prediabetes hospitalized for COVID-19 in 11 hospitals in Austria. The primary outcome of this study was in-hospital mortality. The predictor variables included demographic characteristics, clinical parameters, comorbidities, use of medication, disease severity, and laboratory measurements of biomarkers. The association between biomarkers and in-hospital mortality was assessed using simple and multiple logistic regression analyses. The predictive performance of biomarkers was assessed using discrimination and calibration. Results: In our analysis, 70.8% had type 2 diabetes mellitus, 5.8% had type 1 diabetes mellitus, 14.9% had prediabetes, and 8.6% had other types of diabetes mellitus. The mean age was 70.3 ± 13.3 years, and 69.3% of patients were men. A total of 19.0% of patients died in the hospital. In multiple logistic regression analysis, LDH, CRP, IL-6, PCT, AST-ALT ratio, NT-proBNP, and Troponin T were significantly associated with in-hospital mortality. The discrimination of NT-proBNP was 74%, and that of Troponin T was 81%. The calibration of NT-proBNP was adequate (p = 0.302), while it was inadequate for Troponin T (p = 0.010). Conclusion: Troponin T showed excellent predictive performance, while NT-proBNP showed good predictive performance for assessing in-hospital mortality in patients with diabetes mellitus hospitalized with COVID-19. Therefore, these cardiac biomarkers may be used for prognostication of COVID-19 patients.     

COVID-19 vaccination in patients with diabetes mellitus: Current concepts,uncertainties and challenges

Background and aimsTo summarize the available evidence on the use COVID-19 vaccines in patients with diabetes mellitus.MethodsWe performed a thorough literature search with regard to COVID-19 vaccines in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.ResultsThe novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) tends to portend a poor prognosis in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). Primary prevention remains the mainstay for mitigating the risks associated with COVID-19 in patients with DM. A significant step in primary prevention is timely vaccination. Routine vaccination against pneumococcal pneumonia, influenza, and hepatitis B is recommended in patients with DM with good efficacy and reasonable safety profile. With clinical data supporting a robust neutralizing antibody response in COVID-19 patients with DM, vaccination in individuals with DM is justified. In fact, as the burden of the disease is borne by people with DM, COVID-19 vaccination should be prioritized in individuals with DM. Multiple unresolved issues with regard to preferred vaccine type, vaccine efficacy and durability, frequency of administration, vaccination in children (<18 years) and pregnant/lactating women however remain, and need to be addressed through future research.ConclusionsPatients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus are at a high risk of poor prognosis with COVID-19 and vaccination should be prioritized in them. However, many unresolved issues with regard to COVID-19 vaccination need to be addressed through future research.     

Diabetes and COVID-19: A pooled analysis related to disease severity and mortality

Globally, COVID-19 has become a major concern for the diabetic community. We conducted a pooled analysis and constructed a forest plot for the association between diabetes and COVID-19 progression in 47 studies. A random effects meta-analysis (Mantel–Haenszel method) was conducted to estimate the outcomes effect size as odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) using Review Manager Software version 5.3. COVID-19 patients with diabetes have a significantly higher risk of disease severity (OR = 2.20, 95% CI = 1.69–2.86, p < 0.00001) and associated mortality outcomes (OR = 2.52, 95% CI = 1.93–3.30, p =  < 0.00001).     

The association between COVID-19 and type 1 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review

Background/Aim: Various reports of the occurrence of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) in patients with COVID-19 have been published, denoting an association between both diseases. Therefore, we conducted this systematic review to summarize the prevalence of T1DM in COVID-19 patients and to identify the clinical presentations and outcomes in this patient population.Materials and methodsUp to 10/27/2020, Medline, Embase, cochrane and google scholar databases were searched for original studies investigating the association between COVID-19 and T1DM. A manual search was conducted to identify missing studies. The quality of included studies was analyzed by the National Institute of Health (NIH) risk of bias tool. Outcomes included length of hospital stay, hospitalization, intensive care unit (ICU) admission, diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), severe hypoglycemia, and death.ResultsFifteen studies were included in the qualitative analysis. Included studies reported data of both adult and pediatric patients. The prevalence of T1DM in COVID-19 patients ranged from 0.15% to 28.98%, while the rate of COVID-19 in patients with T1DM ranged from 0% to 16.67%. Dry cough, nausea, vomiting, fever and elevated blood glucose levels were the most commonly reported presentations. The investigated outcomes varied widely among studied populations.ConclusionsThe prevalence of T1DM in patients with COVID-19 ranged from 0.15% to 28.98%. The most common presentation of COVID-19 in patients with T1DM included fever, dry cough, nausea and vomiting, elevated blood glucose and diabetic ketoacidosis. The outcomes of COVID-19 in terms of length of hospital stay, hospitalization, ICU admission, DKA rate, and severe hypoglycemia were reported variably in included studies. Due to the heterogeneous study populations and the presence of many limitations, more studies are still warranted to reach a definitive conclusion.     

Adapting to telemedicine in the COVID-19 era: Feasibility of dried blood spot testing for hemoglobin A1c

Background and aimsThe COVID-19 pandemic has led to a rapid growth in the use of telemedicine for delivery of ambulatory diabetes care. This study evaluated the feasibility of remote HbA1c monitoring via dried blood spot (DBS) testing to support assessment of glycemic control for telemedicine visits and examined clinical and demographic characteristics associated with patient completion of DBS testing.MethodsProviders could place orders for DBS HbA1c 3 weeks prior to telemedicine visits. Feasibility was assessed by examining DBS completion rates, time to completion, and availability of DBS results prior to telemedicine visits. Chi-square tests and Mann Whitney tests were used to assess whether completion rates were associated with participant characteristics.ResultsOf 303 DBS orders placed for telemedicine visits in June 2020, 162 patients completed the DBS test for a completion rate of (53.4%). Average time from collection at home to result being reported was 6.9 (3.8) days. The DBS result was available in 67.6% of patients who completed successful DBS, before the telemedicine clinic visit. HbA1c was lower in the DBS completion group as compared to the non-completion group (8.2% vs. 8.9%, p = 0.01). No other clinical or demographic characteristics were significantly different between the two groups.ConclusionRemote HbA1c monitoring via DBS is feasible and offers an avenue to support assessment of glycemic control for patients seen via telemedicine. Future work should focus on improving clinic and laboratory processes to support remote DBS collection.     

Vitamin D deficiency in patients with diabetes and COVID- 19 infection

Background and aimsData show that vitamin D deficiency may play a role in patients with diabetes mellitus and COVID-19 infection. In this article, we review evidence of vitamin D deficiency and COVID-19 infection in context of diabetes mellitus.MethodsA literature search was carried out by using the key term ‘COVID 19’ combined with ‘Diabetes’, ‘Vitamin D’, ‘Extra skeletal effects’, ‘immunity’, ‘infection’, ‘India’ from Pub Med (National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD and Google Scholar from December 2019 to May 2020. A manual search of the references was also carried out.ResultsVitamin D deficiency has been linked to increased morbidity and mortality in COVID -19 infections but convincing data on diabetic subgroup of patients in particular is still awaited.ConclusionRobust studies are required to ascertain if Vitamin D supplementation could be beneficial in patients with diabetes and COVID-19.     

Study of the Fibriolytic Inhibition and Clinical Prognosis in Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients Complicated with Type II Diabetes Mellitus

Objectives To study the status of fibrinolytic inhibition in patients of acute coronary syndrome(ACS) complicated with type II diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) and to evaluate the effect of fibrinolytic inhibition to the clinical prognosis. Methods Type II diabetes mellitus was defined by ADA 1997/WHO 1998 criteria. The subjects were divided into treatment groups that included 39 patients of ACS with 20 cases of acute myocardiac infarction (AMI), 36 patients of ACS + NIDOM with 20 cases of AMI. Twenty cases of healthy people were randomized to control group. The plasma level of tissue type plas-minogen activator (t - PA), plasminogen activator inhibitor type - 1 (PAI - 1) and plasma D - dimer were detected by using elisa technique. The index of statue in fibrinolysis was detected with the plasma level of D -dimer and the rate of PAI - 1/D - dimer in percentage. This index was used to evaluate the fibrinolytic inhibition and the clinical outcome in all the patients with AMI in treatment groups. The clinical out     

Mucormycosis in COVID-19: A systematic review of cases reported worldwide and in India

Background and aimsThere are increasing case reports of rhino-orbital mucormycosis in people with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), especially from India. Diabetes mellitus (DM) is an independent risk factor for both severe COVID-19 and mucormycosis. We aim to conduct a systematic review of literature to find out the patient's characteristics having mucormycosis and COVID-19.MethodsWe searched the electronic database of PubMed and Google Scholar from inception until May 13, 2021 using keywords. We retrieved all the granular details of case reports/series of patients with mucormycosis, and COVID-19 reported world-wide. Subsequently we analyzed the patient characteristics, associated comorbidities, location of mucormycosis, use of steroids and its outcome in people with COVID-19.ResultsOverall, 101 cases of mucormycosis in people with COVID-19 have been reported, of which 82 cases were from India and 19 from the rest of the world. Mucormycosis was predominantly seen in males (78.9%), both in people who were active (59.4%) or recovered (40.6%) from COVID-19. Pre-existing diabetes mellitus (DM) was present in 80% of cases, while concomitant diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) was present in 14.9%. Corticosteroid intake for the treatment of COVID-19 was recorded in 76.3% of cases. Mucormycosis involving nose and sinuses (88.9%) was most common followed by rhino-orbital (56.7%). Mortality was noted in 30.7% of the cases.ConclusionAn unholy trinity of diabetes, rampant use of corticosteroid in a background of COVID-19 appears to increase mucormycosis. All efforts should be made to maintain optimal glucose and only judicious use of corticosteroids in patients with COVID-19.     

Sex Differences in COVID-19 Hospitalization and Hospital Mortality among Patients with COPD in Spain: A Retrospective Cohort Study

(1) Background: We aimed to assess the effect of COPD in the incidence of hospital admissions for COVID-19 and on the in-hospital mortality (IHM) according to sex. (2) Methods: We used national hospital discharge data to select persons aged ≥40 years admitted to a hospital with a diagnosis of COVID-19 in 2020 in Spain. (3) Results: The study population included 218,301 patients. Age-adjusted incidence rates of COVID-19 hospitalizations for men with and without COPD were 10.66 and 9.27 per 1000 persons, respectively (IRR 1.14; 95% CI 1.08–1.20; p < 0.001). The IHM was higher in men than in women regardless of the history of COPD. The COPD was associated with higher IHM among women (OR 1.09; 95% CI 1.01–1.22) but not among men. The COPD men had a 25% higher risk of dying in the hospital with COVID-19 than women with COPD (OR 1.25, 95% CI 1.1–1.42). (4) Conclusions: Sex differences seem to exist in the effect of COPD among patients suffering COVID-19. The history of COPD increased the risk of hospitalization among men but not among women, and COPD was only identified as a risk factor for IHM among women. In any case, we observed that COPD men had a higher mortality than COPD women. Understanding the mechanisms underlying these sex differences could help predict the patient outcomes and inform clinical decision making to facilitate early treatment and disposition decisions.     

Psychological adaptive difficulties and their management during COVID-19 pandemic in people with diabetes mellitus

Background and aimsPeople with diabetes have multiple psychosocial issues related to diabetes and its complications and this may be exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic.MethodsWe reviewed the psychological adaptative difficulties in people with diabetes especially during natural disasters including the prevailing COVID-19 pandemic.ResultsThere are significant concerns regarding worsening of glycemic control, unavailability of appropriate medicines, inaccessibility to health care or acquiring SARS- CoV-2 infection and subsequent poorer outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although there are some guidance documents for managing diabetes and associated complications during COVID-19 pandemic but very few address the psychological issues in people with diabetes. We discuss the psychological adaptive difficulties and an approach to address the psychosocial concerns in people with diabetes during the COVID-19 pandemic.ConclusionsPeople with diabetes have significant diabetes distress and psychological adaptive difficulties that is aggravated by the COVID-19 pandemic. An integrated multidisciplinary approach is needed to manage the prevailing psychological issues amongst people with diabetes during the COVID-19 pandemic.     

Predictive value of HbA1c for in-hospital adverse prognosis in COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background and aimsClinical and laboratory predictors of adverse clinical course and death in COVID-19 patients urgently need to be identified. So far, the association between HbA1c and in-hospital mortality of COVID-19 remains a controversial issue. The aim of this study is to analyze predictive value of HbA1c for adverse prognosis in COVID-19.MethodsBoth Chinese and English databases were systematically searched using specific keywords associated with the aims until November 21th, 2020. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) was used for quality assessment. A Statistical analysis was carried out using Review Manager 5.3 and STATA 15.1.ResultsNine clinical trials were included in this study involving 2577 subjects. The results indicate that the association between elevated HbA1c referred as a continuous variable and adverse prognosis of COVID-19 was not significant (OR, 1.02; 95%CI, 0.95–1.09). However, higher HbA1c levels regarded as a dichotomous variable contributed to an increase mortality of COVID-19 (OR, 2.300; 95%CI, 1.679–3.150). Results were stable in a sensitivity analysis. More studies are needed to demonstrate the effect of HbA1c on hospital mortality.ConclusionProlonged uncontrolled hyperglycemia increases the risk of adverse prognosis in COVID-19. Patients with higher HbA1c should be monitored strictly to minimize the risk of adverse prognosis in COVID-19.     

凝血指标、炎症指标与COVID-19的关系研究

背景 COVID-19病情严重程度与凝血指标、炎症指标异常等存在一定关系。目的探讨凝血指标、炎症指标与COVID-19的关系。方法回顾性选取武汉大学人民医院2020年1—5月收治的COVID-19患者280例作为观察组,根据预后将其分为存活亚组(n=231)和死亡亚组(n=49)。另选取2020年3—9月本院健康体检者120例作为对照组。分别比较观察组与对照组、存活亚组与死亡亚组一般资料、凝血指标[包括凝血酶原时间(PT)、活化部分凝血活酶时间(APTT)、纤维蛋白原(FIB)、D-二聚体(D-D)]、炎症指标[包括C反应蛋白(CRP)、降钙素原(PCT)]。采用多因素Cox比例风险回归分析探讨COVID-19患者预后的影响因素,绘制受试者工作特征曲线(ROC曲线)分析凝血指标、炎症指标对COVID-19的诊断价值及其预后的预测价值。结果观察组PT长于对照组,血浆FIB、D-D水平及血清CRP、PCT水平高于对照组(P <0.05)。存活亚组年龄小于死亡亚组,冠心病发生率和血浆FIB、D-D及血清CRP、PCT水平低于死亡亚组,PT短于死亡亚组(P <0.05);多因素Cox比例风险回归分析结果显示:年龄[HR=2.869,95%CI(1.497,5.500)]、冠心病[HR=3.796,95%CI(1.680,8.579)]、PT[HR=2.596,95%CI(1.703,3.957)]、血浆D-D水平[HR=2.289,95%CI(1.473,3.557)]及血清CRP[HR=2.542,95%CI(1.607,4.021)]、PCT[HR=2.596,95%CI(1.724,3.910)]水平是COVID-19患者预后的影响因素(P <0.05)。ROC曲线分析结果显示,PT、血浆FIB水平、血浆D-D水平、血清CRP水平、血清PCT水平诊断COVID-19的ROC曲线下面积(AUC)分别为0.592[95%CI(0.542,0.641)]、0.665[95%CI(0.616,0.711)]、0.680[95%CI(0.631,0.725)]、0.690[95%CI(0.642,0.735)]、0.632[95%CI(0.583,0.680)];PT、血浆D-D水平、血清CRP水平、血清PCT水平预测COVID-19患者预后的AUC分别为0.536[95%CI(0.479,0.596)]、0.593[95%CI(0.533,0.651)]、0.603[95%CI(0.543,0.660)]、0.637[95%CI(0.577,0.693)]。结论年龄、冠心病、PT、血浆D-D水平及血清CRP、PCT水平是COVID-19患者预后的影响因素,而凝血指标、炎症指标对COVID-19诊断及其预后预测并无较大价值。     

COVID-19 vaccination in pregnant and lactating diabetic women

AimTo discuss available information on the opportunity for pregnant women affected by diabetes/obesity to receive COVID-19 vaccine.Data synthesisPregnant women with SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) infection are at high risk for severe acute respiratory syndrome and adverse outcomes. Pregnant women with severe COVID-19 present increased rates of preterm delivery (<37 gestational weeks), cesarean delivery and neonatal admissions to the intensive care unit. Comorbidity such as diabetes (pregestational or gestational) or obesity further increased maternal and fetal complications. It is known that diabetic or obese patients with COVID-19 present an unfavorable course and a worse prognosis, with a direct association between worse outcome and suboptimal glycol-metabolic control or body mass index (BMI) levels. Critical COVID-19 infection prevention is important for both mother and fetus. Vaccination during pregnancy is a common practice. Vaccines against COVID-19 are distributed across the world with some population considered to have a priority. Since pregnant women are excluded from clinical trials very little information are available on safety and efficacy of COVD-19 vaccines during pregnancy. However, it is well known the concept of passive immunization of the newborn obtained with transplacental passage of protective antibodies into the fetal/neonatal circulation after maternal infection or vaccination. Moreover, it has been reported that COVID-19 vaccine-induced IgG pass to the neonates through breastmilk. Therefore, maternal vaccination can protect mother, fetus and baby.ConclusionsAfter an individual risk/benefit evaluation pregnant and lactating women should be counselled to receive COVID-19 vaccines.