四肢骨巨细胞瘤的手术治疗

目的比较不同手术方法治疗四肢骨巨细胞瘤的疗效。方法自1998年5月至2006年5月收治骨巨细胞瘤48例,男28例,女20例;年龄16～59岁,平均31岁。股骨远端19例,胫骨近端18例,股骨近端5例,肱骨近端5例,肱骨远端1例。按Campanacci分级,Ⅰ级7例,Ⅱ级30例,Ⅲ级11例。根据肿瘤部位、Campanacci分级及患者年龄,采取不同的手术治疗方法,其中单纯刮除植骨或骨水泥填充17例,刮除植骨内固定19例,瘤段切除＋人工关节置换12例。结果随访时间3～11年,平均6.8年,刮除植骨组有4例复发,复发率为11.1%,瘤段切除＋关节置换组有1例复发,复发率为8.3%,术后患者Enneking功能评定优25例,良12例,可6例,差5例,总体满意率为89.6%。结论病灶刮除植骨是骨巨细胞瘤基本的外科治疗方法,局部辅助处理措施如高速磨钻磨削、蒸馏水浸泡可达到安全的外科治疗边界,从而大大降低病灶刮除术后的复发率,且术后肢体具有良好的功能;瘤段切除适用于CampanacciⅢ级骨巨细胞瘤,虽复发率较低,但重建后的并发症相对较多。     

桡骨远端骨巨细胞瘤28例外科治疗

目的：总结我院自1995年至今收治桡骨远端骨巨细胞瘤28例手术治疗及疗效。方法：采用2种不同的手术方式对桡骨远端骨巨细胞瘤进行治疗。结果：刮除植骨、骨水泥充填术后复发率为22％,而游离自体腓骨移植病例无复发。结论：瘤段切除、腓骨近端移植腕关节重建治疗桡骨远端骨巨细胞瘤复发率较传统刮除植骨、骨水泥充填术为低,可以很好的重建腕关节功能、取得满意的临床效果。     

四肢骨巨细胞瘤术后复发再次手术的疗效观察

目的探讨四肢骨巨细胞瘤术后复发患者再次手术术式选择及疗效。方法回顾1988年2月-2007年6月收治且获完整随访的79例骨巨细胞瘤术后复发再次手术患者临床资料。男42例,女37例;年龄15～72岁,平均33.1岁。初次行囊内刮除76例,整块切除3例;初次手术后2～176个月肿瘤局部复发。肿瘤病灶位于上肢14例,下肢65例。初次手术前影像学Companacci分级,Ⅰ级1例、Ⅱ级33例、Ⅲ级45例。再次手术37例采用囊内刮除植骨联合辅助灭活,42例采用肿瘤整块切除治疗。结果术后2例出现同种异体骨免疫排斥反应,导致切口不愈合;余患者切口均Ⅰ期愈合。患者均获随访,随访时间18～221个月,平均68个月。其中12例于术后6～32个月局部再次复发,采用囊内刮除植骨联合辅助灭活措施者中再复发9例(24.3%,9/37),均再次行肿瘤整块切除;肿瘤整块切除再复发3例(7.1%,3/42),均截肢;两种术式复发率比较差异有统计学意义(χ2=4.508,P=0.034);再复发患者术后随访3年均未见复发。结论复发性四肢骨巨细胞瘤可以通过囊内刮除植骨联合辅助灭活治疗,但肿瘤局部复发率高于肿瘤整块切除。对于肿瘤范围超过横断面50%预测不能彻底刮除及恶性复发性骨巨细胞瘤患者,建议采用肿瘤整块切除方法。     

带血管蒂腓骨移植治疗膝部肿瘤切除后骨缺损

股骨远端和胫骨近端肿瘤切除后 ,特别是恶性肿瘤 ,常造成膝部巨大骨缺损。我科 1988～ 1996年利用带血管蒂腓骨修复膝部肿瘤切除后骨缺损 12例 ,使膝关节得到骨性融合。其优点是手术操作简单 ,腓骨段血供充足 ,移植腓骨段愈合良好临床资料本组男 8例 ,女 4例。年龄 19～ 43岁 ,平均 30 .2岁。股骨下端肿瘤 8例 ,胫骨上端肿瘤 4例 ,其中骨巨细胞瘤 9例 ,(病理分级 级 2例 , 级 3例 , ～ 级 4例 ) ,软骨母细胞瘤 2例 ,皮质旁骨肉瘤 1例。肿瘤局部刮除植骨术后复发 5例 ,手术前发生病理性骨折 8例。手术方法 :采用硬膜外麻醉 ,仰卧位。股骨下…     

1例桡骨骨巨细胞瘤切除带因管蒂腓骨移植术的整体护理

我院于 1 999年 1月首次对 1例右桡骨骨巨细胞瘤术后复发的病人施行桡骨远端骨巨细胞瘤节段切除加自体腓骨近端带血管蒂移植术 ,并通过实施整体护理 ,避免了术后患肢血运差、血管痉挛、切口感染、血栓形成等并发症的发生 ,病人获得康复。1　病例介绍男 ,1 8岁。于 1 998年 9月因右腕关节活动时疼痛 ,在外院诊断为“右桡骨远端骨巨细胞瘤”,并行局部肿瘤刮除加异体骨植骨术 ,术后 3个月出现腕关节局部肿胀 ,桡骨远端压痛 ,X线摄片提示右桡骨骨巨细胞瘤复发。于 1 999年 1月 1 0日收入我院 ,1月1 5日在右臂丛神经阻滞麻醉加腰麻下行右桡骨远…     

复发性肢体骨巨细胞瘤的临床诊治策略

[目的]探讨复发性肢体骨巨细胞瘤的临床、影像学特点以及不同治疗方法及临床疗效.[方法]自1995年1月～2009年1月治疗29例复发性骨巨细胞瘤,男15例,女14例;复发时平均年龄32.4岁(13～56)岁;股骨远端和胫骨近端各12例,肱骨近端2例,股骨近端、尺骨远端、腓骨近端各1例.首次手术方式与例数:肿瘤刮除植骨26例,瘤段切除骨缺损修复术2例,单纯腓骨近端切除术1例.复发平均时间26.6个月(1～168)个月.再次手术方式与例数:瘤段切除骨缺损修复重建术17例(假体置换14例,自体骨移植2例,灭活再植1例);肿瘤扩大刮除瘤腔灭活骨修复术7例(植骨4例,骨水泥填充内固定3例),肿瘤扩大切除术3例;截肢术2例.[结果]随访时间24～180个月,平均70个月.2例再次复发;总再复发率为6.9％,肿瘤切除骨缺损修复组无复发,病灶内手术组中1例复发(1/7,14.29％),局部扩大切除术组1例复发(1/3,33.33％).随访期内2例死亡(1例死于非肿瘤原因).病灶内手术组肢体功能优良率为100％,瘤段切除骨缺损修复组为73.33％.综合临床疗效评价病灶内手术优良率为85.71％.肿瘤切除骨缺损修复组为66.67％.[结论]骨巨细胞瘤术后定期随访对于早期诊断肿瘤复发至关重要;一旦复发诊断明确,尽管存在再次复发的风险,应首选瘤灶内手术;对放射学Companacci Ⅲ级的复发性骨巨细胞瘤可选择瘤段切除骨缺损重建手术治疗,但存在一定的远期并发症.     

成软骨细胞瘤65例临床分析

目的分析成软骨细胞瘤的特点、治疗方法和疗效。方法收集我院自1994年-2011年经手术病理确诊并有完整随访资料的成软骨细胞瘤共65例。其中男45例,女20例,男女比例为2.25︰1;年龄3~45岁,平均(18.42±7.94)岁。病变部位为胫骨近端8例(12%),股骨远端11例(17%),股骨近端23例(35%),肱骨近端和距骨各4例(6%),髌骨3例,跟骨和骨盆各2例,足舟骨、桡骨近端、桡骨远端、肋骨、肩胛骨、腓骨、股骨干、C7附件各1例。行单纯病灶内刮除5例,刮除植骨40例,刮除骨水泥填充11例。行瘤段切除9例(人工关节置换4例,单纯瘤段切除5例)。结果平均随访65.3个月(15~200个月)。3例局部复发,经再次手术治疗无复发。复发率为4.6%。未发现转移者。结论成软骨细胞瘤影像学诊断易与骨巨细胞瘤等混淆,病灶内刮除术可以达到较好的疗效,在保证患者肢体功能的前提下适度扩大病灶的切除范围可降低其复发率。     

骨巨细胞瘤术后复发的手术治疗

目的:探讨骨巨细胞瘤术后复发的手术方法及疗效。方法:1994年6月-2003年10月,收治四肢长骨复发性骨巨细胞瘤18例,男12例,女6例;年龄18~44岁,平均26岁。股骨下端5例,胫骨上端8例,股骨上端1例,桡骨远端4例。Enneking分期:Ⅰa期14例,Ⅰb期4例。放射影像学Cam-panicci分级:Ⅰ级7例,Ⅱ级7例,Ⅲ级4例。病理学Jaffe分级:Ⅰ级8例,Ⅱ级7例,Ⅲ级3例。采用肿瘤扩大切除,吻合血管的自体腓骨、髂骨联合移植术治疗9例;瘤段切除,吻合血管的腓骨头移植重建术4例;瘤段切除,人工假体置换术5例。结果:随访时间11~110个月,平均66个月。所有移植骨术后均愈合,一侧关节间隙轻度狭窄2例,术后再复发1例。术后功能评价:优13例,良3例,可1例,差1例。结论:肿瘤扩大切除,吻合血管的自体腓骨、髂骨联合移植术既能彻底切除病变,又能保持和重建关节功能,是一种较理想的方法,Campanicci分级Ⅲ级、病理学Jaffe分级Ⅱ~Ⅲ级的复发性骨巨细胞瘤原则上应施行更为广泛的瘤段切除术,桡骨远端复发性骨巨细胞瘤因其部位的特殊性,应用自体腓骨移植重建效果良好。     

自体腓骨移植治疗桡骨远端骨巨细胞瘤

目的：探讨白体近端腓骨移植重建在桡骨远端骨巨细胞瘤临床治疗中的应用及效果。方法：对4例桡骨远端骨巨细胞瘤复发（Campanacci Ⅲ级）患者在行桡骨远端瘤段切除的同时,行自体近端腓骨移植重建手术。结果：所有患者随访27～50个月,疼痛症状消失,骨愈合时间5～9个月,平均愈合时间为6．5个月,无移植骨吸收和骨折,腕关节功能握持力为对侧手的55％（40～80％）,背伸活动度可达对侧50％（10～80％）,掌屈达40％（15～70％）,无神经血管损伤症状,恢复正常工作劳动。所有患者均未出现骨巨细胞瘤的复发及肺转移。结论：桡骨远端骨巨细胞瘤经广泛切除后,用自体近端腓骨移植进行保肢治疗,可较好地保留腕关节功能,是一种有效的治疗方法。     

膝关节周围骨巨细胞瘤的外科治疗

目的探讨膝关节周围骨巨细胞瘤的临床和影像学特点、手术方式的选择及临床疗效,讨论该病变可接受的外科治疗方式。方法 23例膝关节周围骨巨细胞瘤患者(股骨远端10例,胫骨近端12例,腓骨近端复发并胫骨转移1例)根据病变的临床、影像学特点选择不同手术方式:9例行瘤段切除肿瘤假体置换术;13例行肿瘤扩大刮除瘤腔灭活骨修复和内固定术(植骨9例,骨水泥填充4例),1例行截肢术。结果患者均获得随访,时间8~50个月。术后3例复发,肿瘤切除骨缺损修复组1例复发,肢体功能评分80%;肿瘤扩大刮除瘤腔灭活骨修复组2例复发,肢体功能评分95%。结论根据膝关节周围骨巨细胞瘤的临床及影像学特点选择合理的治疗方法,对肿瘤复发的控制及后续治疗方面具备一定的优势。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.