Validity and reliability of a pressure ulcer monitoring tool for persons with spinal cord impairment

Objective

The purpose was to provide support for validity and reliability of the spinal cord impairment pressure ulcer monitoring tool (SCI-PUMT) to assess pressure ulcer (PrU) healing.

Design

Expert panels developed a 30-item pool, including new items and items from two established PrU healing tools, to represent potential variables for monitoring PrU healing. Subjects were prospectively assessed weekly for each variable over a 12-week period.

Setting

Data collection was conducted on a cohort of inpatients and outpatients in one Spinal Cord Injury/Disorders Center in the Veterans’ Health Administration.

Subjects

A convenience sample of Veterans (n = 66) with spinal cord impairment (SCI) was recruited. Eligible subjects had at least one PrU (n = 167) and a history of SCI for longer than 1 year.

Interventions

Not applicable.

Outcome Measure

A change in PrU volume was calculated using VeV Measurement Documentation software and a digital imaging camera.

Results

Content validity was established for a pool of items designed to gauge PrU healing. Exploratory factor analysis (construct validity) identified a parsimonious set of seven items for inclusion in the SCI-PUMT to assess PrU healing. The SCI-PUMT was found to explain 59% of the variance of the volume across the study. Inter-rater reliability was 0.79 and intra-rater reliability ranged from 0.81 to 0.99 among research assistants. Similar levels of reliability were subsequently established among registered nurses, who used the SCI-PUMT in the clinical setting.

Conclusions

The final version of the SCI-PUMT was determined to be valid, reliable, and sensitive in detecting PrU healing over time in Veterans with SCI.     

Exploring the first pressure injury and characteristics of subsequent pressure injury accrual following spinal cord injury

Context/Objective: Clinicians have guidance on prevention and treatment of pressure injuries, but little is known regarding characteristics of patients who develop additional pressure injuries. Thus, our objective was to explore the first pressure injury and characteristics of individuals who develop subsequent pressure injuries during acute care and inpatient rehabilitation following spinal cord injury.Design: Secondary analysis of longitudinal data from a cohort of adults following initial traumatic spinal cord injury.Setting: Urban acute care hospital and inpatient rehabilitation facilities.Participants: A convenience sample of adults (n = 38) who developed at least one pressure injury during acute care and inpatient rehabilitation.Interventions: Not applicable.Outcome Measures: The primary outcomes were number of additional pressure injuries and stage of care during which they occurred, prior to community discharge.Results: A covariate-adjusted model revealed that participants with ASIA D injury had a 67% decrease in the rate of additional pressure injury incidence compared to participants with ASIA A injury (Rate Ratio = .33, 95% CI [0.13, 0.88]). The severity of the first pressure injury had no significant association with subsequent pressure injury incidence (P = .10).Conclusion: These findings indicated that individuals with greater sensory and motor loss had an increased risk of developing additional pressure injuries compared to individuals with less impairment. These results are meaningful for stakeholders interested in understanding factors associated with developing subsequent pressure injuries during the index rehabilitation stay and provide a foundation for future research in this area.     

Comprehensive management of pressure ulcers in spinal cord injury: Current concepts and future trends

Abstract

Pressure ulcers in spinal cord injury represent a challenging problem for patients, their caregivers, and their physicians. They often lead to recurrent hospitalizations, multiple surgeries, and potentially devastating complications. They present a significant cost to the healthcare system, they require a multidisciplinary team approach to manage well, and outcomes directly depend on patients' education, prevention, and compliance with conservative and surgical protocols. With so many factors involved in the successful treatment of pressure ulcers, an update on their comprehensive management in spinal cord injury is warranted. Current concepts of local wound care, surgical options, as well as future trends from the latest wound healing research are reviewed to aid medical professionals in treating patients with this difficult problem.     

Subepidermal moisture surrounding pressure ulcers in persons with a spinal cord injury: A pilot study

Objective

Characterization of a non-invasive method of quantifying subepidermal moisture (SEM) surrounding stages III and IV pressure ulcers (PrUs) in spinal cord injury (SCI).

Design

Prospective, single-visit, single-rater, observational study, using repeated-measures analysis.

Method

Setting-inpatient units of one VA SCI Center.

Participants

Convenience sample of 16 subjects with SCI with stage III or IV PrUs over sacrum or ischium.

Interventions

Measurement with the MoistureMeter-D, a hand-held device using 300 MHz electromagnetic waves.

Outcome measures

Dielectric constant, a dimensionless number which increases with the moisture content. Each subject had a PrU site and a control site. Measurements were made at each site, on intact skin, at four points spaced angularly around the site, in triplicate.

Results

(1) Short-term, single-rater relative error was 2.5%. (2) Order effect: first readings were higher than second readings in 55 of 64 measurement sets. Order effect was significant for control sites (P < 0.0001) but not for PrU sites. (3) Angular effect: SEM varied by angle at the PrU sites (P < 0.01); 12 o''clock position the highest and 6 o''clock the lowest. (4) Ability to differentiate PrUs from intact skin: SEM at PrU sites was greater by 9.0% than control sites (P < 0.05). (5) Site effect: SEM was higher at sacral locations than ischial at control sites by 20% (P < 0.005).

Conclusions

SEM differentiates PrUs from intact skin. Future study designs must take into account order, angular, and site effects on this measure. This information will inform designers of future studies of SEM in healing of PrUs.     

A pilot study evaluating protein abundance in pressure ulcer fluid from people with and without spinal cord injury

Abstract

Objective

To determine whether the biochemistry of chronic pressure ulcers differs between patients with and without chronic spinal cord injury (SCI) through measurement and comparison of the concentration of wound fluid inflammatory mediators, growth factors, cytokines, acute phase proteins, and proteases.

Design

Survey.

Setting

Tertiary spinal cord rehabilitation center and skilled nursing facilities.

Participants

Twenty-nine subjects with SCI and nine subjects without SCI (>18 years) with at least one chronic pressure ulcer Stage II, III, or IV were enrolled.

Outcome measures

Total protein and 22 target analyte concentrations including inflammatory mediators, growth factors, cytokines, acute phase proteins, and proteases were quantified in the wound fluid and blood serum samples. Blood samples were tested for complete blood count, albumin, hemoglobin A1c, total iron binding capacity, iron, percent (%) saturation, C-reactive protein, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate.

Results

Wound fluid concentrations were significantly different between subjects with SCI and subjects without SCI for total protein concentration and nine analytes, MMP-9, S100A12, S100A8, S100A9, FGF2, IL-1b, TIMP-1, TIMP-2, and TGF-b1. Subjects without SCI had higher values for all significantly different analytes measured in wound fluid except FGF2, TGF-b1, and wound fluid total protein. Subject-matched circulating levels of analytes and the standardized local concentration of the same proteins in the wound fluid were weakly or not correlated.

Conclusions

The biochemical profile of chronic pressure ulcers is different between SCI and non-SCI populations. These differences should be considered when selecting treatment options. Systemic blood serum properties may not represent the local wound environment.     

A pilot study evaluating protein abundance in pressure ulcer fluid from people with and without spinal cord injury

Objective

To determine whether the biochemistry of chronic pressure ulcers differs between patients with and without chronic spinal cord injury (SCI) through measurement and comparison of the concentration of wound fluid inflammatory mediators, growth factors, cytokines, acute phase proteins, and proteases.

Design

Survey.

Setting

Tertiary spinal cord rehabilitation center and skilled nursing facilities.

Participants

Twenty-nine subjects with SCI and nine subjects without SCI (>18 years) with at least one chronic pressure ulcer Stage II, III, or IV were enrolled.

Outcome measures

Total protein and 22 target analyte concentrations including inflammatory mediators, growth factors, cytokines, acute phase proteins, and proteases were quantified in the wound fluid and blood serum samples. Blood samples were tested for complete blood count, albumin, hemoglobin A1c, total iron binding capacity, iron, percent (%) saturation, C-reactive protein, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate.

Results

Wound fluid concentrations were significantly different between subjects with SCI and subjects without SCI for total protein concentration and nine analytes, MMP-9, S100A12, S100A8, S100A9, FGF2, IL-1b, TIMP-1, TIMP-2, and TGF-b1. Subjects without SCI had higher values for all significantly different analytes measured in wound fluid except FGF2, TGF-b1, and wound fluid total protein. Subject-matched circulating levels of analytes and the standardized local concentration of the same proteins in the wound fluid were weakly or not correlated.

Conclusions

The biochemical profile of chronic pressure ulcers is different between SCI and non-SCI populations. These differences should be considered when selecting treatment options. Systemic blood serum properties may not represent the local wound environment.     

大腿剔骨皮瓣修复脊髓损伤患者髋关节周围难治性压疮

目的:探讨修复脊髓损伤患者髋关节周围危及生命难治性压疮的方法和疗效。方法:2012年3月至2015年6月,采用高位股骨截骨或髋离断形成血供丰富的大腿剔骨肌皮瓣修复8例脊髓损伤患者髋关节周围危及生命的难治性压疮。其中男7例,女1例;年龄35~68岁,平均(52.0±2.6)岁。病程10个月~7年,平均(2.9±0.2)年。所有患者为包括2个部位以上的复杂压疮,除1例未引起髋关节感染外,其余7例压疮均合并同侧髋关节内感染。单个压疮表面面积最小3 cm×3 cm,最大12 cm×15 cm。术后观察感染控制,创面愈合,营养状况改善和生活质量提高情况。结果:8例患者均获得随访,随访时间3个月~2年,平均1.3年。所有患者皮瓣成活,其中5例创面Ⅰ期愈合,2例皮瓣愈合不良,经扩创缝合后Ⅱ期愈合。1例远段小块皮瓣坏死,经换药愈合。术中尿道损伤1例,经尿道修补痊愈。所有创面得到有效覆盖,局部感染控制,营养情况及生活质量较术前明显改善,随访期间,无创面感染及皮瓣覆盖部位压疮复发病例。结论:大腿剔骨肌皮瓣能有效修复脊髓损伤患者髋关节周围危及生命的难治性压疮创面。虽以失去整个下肢为代价,但在没有其他更好的办法时,它仍然是一种挽救生命的好方法。     

The relationship of pressure ulcers, race, and socioeconomic conditions after spinal cord injury

Objective:

To identify risks factors associated with pressure ulcers (PrU) after spinal cord injury (SCI) by examining race and indicators of socioeconomic status (measured by income and education). We hypothesize African Americans will have a greater risk for PrUs than whites, but this relationship will be mediated by the 2 socioeconomic status indicators.

Design:

Cohort study.

Setting:

A large rehabilitation hospital in the southeastern US.

Participants:

1,466 white and African American adults at least 1-year post-traumatic SCI.

Outcome Measures:

(a) PrUs in the past year, (b) current PrU, (c) surgery to repair a PrU since injury.

Results:

In preliminary analyses, race was significantly associated with having a current PrU and with having surgery to repair a PrU since injury. In multivariable analyses, the relationships of PrU with having a current PrU and with having surgery to repair a PrU were both mediated by income and education such that the relationships were no longer significant. Lower income was associated with increased odds of each PrU outcome. After controlling for other variables in the model, education was associated with increased odds of having a current PrU.

Conclusion:

These findings help clarify the relationships between race and socioeconomic status with PrUs after SCI. Specifically, a lack of resources, both financial and educational, is associated with worse PrU outcomes. These results can be used by both providers and policy makers when considering prevention and intervention strategies for PrUs among people with SCI.     

The application of implementation science for pressure ulcer prevention best practices in an inpatient spinal cord injury rehabilitation program

Objectives

To implement pressure ulcer (PU) prevention best practices in spinal cord injury (SCI) rehabilitation using implementation science frameworks.

Design

Quality improvement.

Setting

SCI Rehabilitation Center.

Participants

Inpatients admitted January 2012 to July 2013.

Interventions

Implementation of two PU best practices were targeted: (1) completing a comprehensive PU risk assessment and individualized interprofessional PU prevention plan (PUPP); and (2) providing patient education for PU prevention; as part of the pan-Canadian SCI Knowledge Mobilization Network. At our center, the SCI Pressure Ulcer Scale replaced the Braden risk assessment scale and an interprofessional PUPP form was implemented. Comprehensive educational programing existed, so efforts focused on improving documentation. Implementation science frameworks provided structure for a systematic approach to best practice implementation (BPI): (1) site implementation team, (2) implementation drivers, (3) stages of implementation, and (4) improvement cycles. Strategies were developed to address key implementation drivers (staff competency, organizational supports, and leadership) through the four stages of implementation: exploration, installation, initial implementation, and full implementation. Improvement cycles were used to address BPI challenges.

Outcome Measures

Implementation processes (e.g. staff training) and BPI outcomes (completion rates).

Results

Following BPI, risk assessment completion rates improved from 29 to 82%. The PUPP completion rate was 89%. PU education was documented for 45% of patients (vs. 21% pre-implementation).

Conclusion

Implementation science provided a framework and effective tools for successful pressure ulcer BPI in SCI rehabilitation. Ongoing improvement cycles will target timeliness of tool completion and documentation of patient education.     

High-voltage electrical stimulation for the management of stage III and IV pressure ulcers among adults with spinal cord injury: demonstration of its utility for recalcitrant wounds below the level of injury

Context

Patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) have many factors that are associated with pressure ulcer formation, including paralysis, loss of sensation, poor nutrition, anemia, and skin maceration related to incontinence. Treatment of these ulcers involves relieving pressure, improving nutrition and skin hygiene, treating infections, removing necrotic tissues, and applying the appropriate dressings. However, some cases are not responsive to the above treatment. Electrical stimulation (ES) is thought to enhance soft tissue healing through promotion of protein synthesis, inhibition of bacterial growth, facilitation of epithelial tissue migration, improvement of blood flow, and tensile strength. This data is mainly based on evidence from animal studies and very few rigorously controlled studies conducted in humans.

Objective

To demonstrate the effectiveness of ES in the treatment of recalcitrant pressure ulcers.

Methods

Retrospective case series describing the care of adults with SCI and recalcitrant pressure ulcers. ES was applied directly into the wound bed: 60 minutes per session, 3–5 times per week; with an intensity of 100 milliamperes and a frequency of 100 pulses per second. Polarity was negative initially and was switched weekly. The amplitude and wave form were maintained throughout.

Results

The long-standing (11–14 months) pressure ulcers were completely healed after 7 to 22 weeks of treatment with high-voltage ES.

Conclusion/clinical relevance

This case series demonstrates the effectiveness of ES for enhanced healing of Stage III–IV ulcers otherwise unresponsive to standard wound care. Further study is needed to identify the most effective protocol for ES therapy in the treatment of recalcitrant pressure ulcers.     

The average cost of pressure ulcer management in a community dwelling spinal cord injury population

Pressure ulcers (PUs) are a common secondary complication experienced by community dwelling individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI). There is a paucity of literature on the health economic impact of PU in SCI population from a societal perspective. The objective of this study was to determine the resource use and costs in 2010 Canadian dollars of a community dwelling SCI individual experiencing a PU from a societal perspective. A non‐comparative cost analysis was conducted on a cohort of community dwelling SCI individuals from Ontario, Canada. Medical resource use was recorded over the study period. Unit costs associated with these resources were collected from publicly available sources and published literature. Average monthly cost was calculated based on 7‐month follow‐up. Costs were stratified by age, PU history, severity level, location of SCI, duration of current PU and PU surface area. Sensitivity analyses were also carried out. Among the 12 study participants, total average monthly cost per community dwelling SCI individual with a PU was $4745. Hospital admission costs represented the greatest percentage of the total cost (62%). Sensitivity analysis showed that the total average monthly costs were most sensitive to variations in hospitalisation costs.     

Pressure ulcers and acute risk factors in individuals with traumatic spinal fractures with or without spinal cord injuries: A prospective analysis of the National Spinal Column/Cord Injury Registry of Iran (NSCIR-IR) data

PurposeTo identify risk factors for developing pressure ulcers (PUs) in the acute care period of traumatic spinal fracture patients with or without spinal cord injuries (SCIs).MethodsData were collected prospectively in participating the National Spinal column/Cord Injury Registry of Iran (NSCIR-IR) from individuals with traumatic spinal fractures with or without SCIs, inclusive of the hospital stay from admission to discharge. Trained nursing staff examined the patients for the presence of PUs every 8 h during their hospital stay. The presence and grade of PUs were assessed according to the European Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel classification. In addition to PU, following data were also extracted from the NSCIR-IR datasets during the period of 2015 – 2021: age, sex, Glasgow coma scale score at admission, having SCIs, marital status, surgery for a spinal fracture, American Spinal Injury Association impairment scale (AIS), urinary incontinence, level of education, admitted center, length of stay in the intensive care unit (ICU), hypertension, respiratory diseases, consumption of cigarettes, diabetes mellitus and length of stay in the hospital. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the unadjusted and adjusted odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).ResultsAltogether 2785 participants with traumatic spinal fractures were included. Among them, 87 (3.1%) developed PU during their hospital stay and 392 (14.1%) had SCIs. In the SCI population, 63 (16.1%) developed PU during hospital stay. Univariate logistic regression for the whole sample showed that marital status, having SCIs, urinary incontinence, level of education, treating center, number of days in the ICU, age, and Glasgow coma scale score were significant predictors for PUs. However, further analysis by multiple logistic regression only revealed the significant risk factors to be the treating center, marital status, having SCIs, and the number of days in the ICU. For the subgroup of individuals with SCIs, marital status, AIS, urinary incontinence, level of education, the treating center, the number of days in the ICU and the number of days in the hospital were significant predictors for PUs by univariate analysis. After adjustment in the multivariate model, the treating center, marital status (singles vs. marrieds, OR = 3.06, 95% CI: 1.55 – 6.03, p = 0.001), and number of days in the ICU (OR = 1.06, 95% CI: 1.04 – 1.09, p < 0.001) maintained significance.ConclusionsThese data confirm that individuals with traumatic spinal fractures and SCIs, especially single young patients who suffer from urinary incontinence, grades A-D by AIS, prolonged ICU stay, and more extended hospitalization are at increased risk for PUs; as a result strategies to minimize PU development need further refinement.     

The impact of a pressure ulcer prevention educational program based on the health belief model for persons with spinal cord injury

Study designPre- and post- trial.ObjectivesTo determine the changes of health belief levels after a pressure ulcer (PrU) prevention educational program based on the Health Belief Model (HBM)SettingDepartment of Rehabilitation Medicine, University Medical Centre, Malaysia.MethodsThis study was conducted between May 2016 and May 2018. We created a multidisciplinary structured PrU prevention education program based on the HBM, consisting of didactic lectures, open discussions and a practical session. The content of the program was based on several PrU prevention guidelines. The education program focused on a group of 6–10 participants, and was conducted by a multidisciplinary team; i.e. doctor, physiotherapist, occupational therapist and a nurse. The skin care belief scales (SCBS) questionnaire was administered pre, post and 8-week post intervention, which measured the 9 domains of HBM. The data from the study was analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA to assess the effectiveness of the program.ResultsThirty spinal cord injured participants who fulfilled the inclusion and exclusion criteria completed this study. The results of the education program show statistically significant effects on Susceptibility; F (2,58) = 12.53, P < 0.05, Barriers to Skin Check Belief; F(2,58) = 5.74, P > 0.05, Benefits to Wheelchair Pressure Relief Belief; F(1.65,47.8) = 3.97, P < 0.05, Barriers to Turning and Positioning Belief; F(2,58) = 3.92, P < 0.05 and Self-Efficacy; F(1.7,49.11) = 4.7, P < 0.05.ConclusionsA structured HBM based education program is shown to improve health beliefs level in five SCBS domains. This education program is recommended for PrU prevention within the spinal cord injured population.ImplicationsA multidisciplinary structured HBM based education program may improve the current method of PrU prevention education.     

冲击载荷造成椎管内压力变化与脊髓损伤程度的评估

目的 观察脊柱遭受轴向撞击时椎管内的压力变化,从撞击－压力变化－脊髓损伤的角度分析脊柱骨折类型与脊髓损伤程度间的关系,为脊髓损伤程度的早期评估提供实验依据。方法 应用ＢＩＭ－Ｉ型立式生物撞击机高速准静态轴向加载和应力遮挡技术建立脊椎爆裂型骨折模型,观察８具新鲜尸体的脊柱标本Ｔ１０￣Ｌ４节段受垂直撞击瞬间椎管内的压力变化,将大体解剖观察与放射影像学技术相结合,记录脊柱骨折类型及脊柱损伤程度。结果 发     

创伤性上升性脊髓缺血损伤

脊椎损伤后,脊髓损伤平面上升较为少见。作者报告了５例,其中Ｔ１０－１１骨折脱位２例：１例于伤后２周内,截竣平面上升至Ｃ２,呼吸麻痹死亡,１例上升至颈部脊髓,双上肢无力;另３例为Ｔ１２骨折２例,Ｌ３骨折１例：其中截竣平面上升至Ｔ９至１例,Ｔ８者２例。５例患者双下肢皆呈软竣,１例死亡患者尸检见脊髓完整,Ｔ９－１０段脊髓前后动静脉血栓,其向上至Ｃ３,向下至Ｓ１,脊髓前血管、中央血管、髓内小血管多处 栓,     

Utilisation of skin blood flow as a precursor for pressure injury development in persons with acute spinal cord injury: A proof of concept

People with spinal cord injury (SCI) are at high risk of developing a pressure injury. It is unclear why some people with SCI develop pressure injury while others with similar predisposing risk factors do not during acute hospitalisation. This may hinder healthcare utilisation to prevent pressure injuries. The purpose of the study was to examine the proof‐of‐concept objective bedside skin blood flow measurements before a pressure injury develops in spinal cord injured patients during acute hospitalisation. This was an observational study. All participants had acute traumatic SCI and were pressure injury‐free upon enrollment. Skin blood flow patterns were collected at both heels under two circumstances: localised pressure for reactive hyperemia, and localised heating for heat hyperemia. Our results showed that reactive and heat hyperemia were successfully induced in all eleven participants. Two participants developed pressure injury and nine did not have pressure injury at discharge. Heat hyperemia was smaller in participants with pressure injury. No difference was observed in reactive hyperemia between the groups. In conclusion, skin blood flow measurements could be obtained at bedside during acute hospitalisation of SCI for the purpose of research. Further examination of a larger group is warranted to determine clinical use of heat hyperemia pattern as predictor for pressure injury development.     

Pressure changes in spinal canal and evaluation of spinal cord injuries in spinal section subjected to impact

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Potentially modifiable risk factors among veterans with spinal cord injury hospitalized for severe pressure ulcers: a descriptive study

Context/objective

Pressure ulcers (PrUs) are a serious, costly and potentially life-long complication of spinal cord injury (SCI). Co-morbid conditions increase PrU risk, adding to the health behavior challenges faced by people with SCI. Little is known about medical co-morbidities, health beliefs, risk, protective behaviors, and readiness to improve skin care behaviors in people with SCI. This study describes the potentially modifiable medical and behavioral risk factors among veterans with SCI and severe (Stage III/IV) PrUs.

Design

Cross-sectional observational design.

Setting

6 VA SCI Centers.

Participants

Convenience sample from a larger intervention study of 148 veterans hospitalized for PrUs.

Interventions

Not applicable.

Outcome measures

Knowledge, PrU risk, skin protective behaviors, health beliefs, and practices, health locus of control, skin worsening.

Results

Most ulcers were stage IV (73%) and about half had 2+ PrUs. Participants reported a mean of 6.7 co-morbid conditions (respiratory, gastrointestinal, renal disease/urinary tract infection, autonomic dysreflexia, diabetes, bowel/bladder incontinence). Potential intervention opportunities include proactive assistance with management of multiple chronic conditions, substance abuse, nutrition, adherence to skin protective behaviors, readiness to change, and access to resources. Overall knowledge about PrUs was low, especially for how to prevent PrUs and what to do if skin breakdown occurs.

Conclusion

Future research should address whether comprehensive models that include patient self-management, decision support and health care system, and proactive behavior change assistance for patients help reduce PrU incidence and recurrence in persons with SCI.

Trial Registration

http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/{"type":"clinical-trial","attrs":{"text":"NCT00105859","term_id":"NCT00105859"}}NCT00105859     

Start-up propulsion biomechanics changes with fatiguing activity in persons with spinal cord injury

Objective: Shoulder pathology is a common condition in wheelchair users that can considerably impact quality of life. Shoulder muscles are prone to fatigue, but it is unclear how fatigue affects start-up propulsion biomechanics. This study determines acute changes in start-up wheelchair propulsion biomechanics at the end of a fatiguing propulsion protocol.

Design: Quasi-experimental one-group pretest-postest design.

Setting: Biomechanics laboratory. Participants: Twenty-six wheelchair users with spinal cord injury (age: 35.5?±?9.8 years, sex: 73% males and 73% with a paraplegia).

Interventions: Protocol of 15 min including maximum voluntary propulsion, right- and left turns, full stops, start-up propulsion, and rests.

Outcome measures: Maximum resultant force, maximum rate of rise of applied force, mean velocity, mean fraction of effective force, and mean contact time at the beginning and end of the protocol during start-up propulsion.

Results: There was a significant reduction in maximum resultant force (P?<?0.001) and mean velocity (P?<?0.001) at the end of the protocol. Also, contact time was reduced in the first stroke of start-up propulsion (P?<?0.001). Finally, propelling with a shorter contact time was associated with a greater reduction in performance (maximum velocity) at the end of the protocol.

Conclusion: There are clear changes in overground propulsion biomechanics at the end of a fatiguing propulsion protocol. While reduced forces could protect the shoulder, these reduced forces come with shorter contact times and lower velocity. Investigating changes in start-up propulsion biomechanics with fatigue could provide insight into injury risk.