Sevoflurane Confers Additional Cardioprotection after Ischemic Late Preconditioning in Rabbits

Background: Sevoflurane exerts cardioprotective effects that mimic the early ischemic preconditioning phenomenon (EPC) by activating adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels. Ischemic late preconditioning (LPC) is an important cardioprotective mechanism in patients with coronary artery disease. The authors investigated whether the combination of LPC and sevoflurane-induced preconditioning results in enhanced cardioprotection and whether opening of KATP channels plays a role in this new setting.

Methods: Seventy-three rabbits were instrumented with a coronary artery occluder. After recovery for 10 days, they were subjected to 30 min of coronary artery occlusion and 120 min of reperfusion (I/R). Controls (n = 14) were not preconditioned. LPC was induced in conscious animals by a 5-min period of coronary artery occlusion 24 h before I/R (LPC, n = 15). Additional EPC was induced by a 5-min period of myocardial ischemia 10 min before I/R (LPC+EPC, n = 9). Animals of the sevoflurane (SEVO) groups inhaled 1 minimum alveolar concentration of sevoflurane for 5 min at 10 min before I/R with (LPC+SEVO, n = 10) or without (SEVO, n = 15) additional LPC. The KATP channel blocker 5-hydroxydecanoate (5-HD, 5 mg/kg) was given intravenously 10 min before sevoflurane administration (LPC+SEVO+5-HD, n = 10).

Results: Infarct size of the area at risk (triphenyltetrazolium staining) was reduced from 45 +/- 16% (mean+/-SD, control) to 27 +/- 11% by LPC (P < 0.001) and to 27 +/- 17% by sevoflurane (P = 0.001). Additional sevoflurane administration after LPC led to a further infarct size reduction to 14 +/- 8% (LPC+SEVO, P = 0.003 vs. LPC; P = 0.032 vs. SEVO), similar to the combination of LPC and EPC (12 +/- 8%; P = 0.55 vs. LPC+SEVO). Cardioprotection induced by LPC+SEVO was abolished by 5-HD (LPC+SEVO+5-HD, 41 +/- 19%, P = 0.001 vs. LPC+SEVO).     

The influence of mitochondrial KATP-channels in the cardioprotection of preconditioning and postconditioning by sevoflurane in the rat in vivo

Volatile anesthetics induce myocardial preconditioning and can also protect the heart when given at the onset of reperfusion-a practice recently termed "postconditioning." We investigated the role of mitochondrial KATP (mKATP)-channels in sevoflurane-induced cardioprotection for both preconditioning and postconditioning alone and whether there is a synergistic effect of both. Rats were subjected to 25 min of coronary artery occlusion followed by 120 min of reperfusion. Infarct size was determined by triphenyltetrazolium staining. The following protocols were used: 1) preconditioning (S-Pre, n = 10, achieved by 2 periods of 5 min sevoflurane administration (1 MAC) followed by 10 min of washout); 2) sevoflurane postconditioning (1 MAC of sevoflurane given for 2 min at the beginning of reperfusion; S-Post, n = 10); 3) administration before and after ischemia (S-Pre + S-Post, n = 10). Protocols 1-3 were repeated in the presence of 5-hydroxydecanoate (5HD), a specific mKATP-channel-blocker (S-Pre + S-Post + 5HD, S-Pre + 5HD: n = 10; S-Post + 5HD: n = 9). Nine rats served as untreated controls (CON) or received 5HD alone (5HD, n = 10). Both S-Pre (23% +/- 13% of the area at risk, mean +/- sd) and S-Post (18% +/- 5%) reduced infarct size compared with CON (49% +/- 11%, both P < 0.05). S-Pre + S-Post resulted in a larger reduction of infarct size (12% +/- 5%, P = 0.054 versus S-Pre) compared with administration before or after ischemia alone. 5HD diminished the protection in all three sevoflurane treated groups (S-Pre + 5HD, 35% +/- 12%; S-Post + 5HD, 44% +/- 12%; S-Pre + S-Post + 5HD, 46% +/- 14%;) but given alone had no effect on infarct size (41% +/- 13%). Sevoflurane preconditioning and postconditioning protects against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury. The combination of preconditioning and postconditioning provides additive cardioprotection and is mediated, at least in part, by mKATP-channels.     

七氟烷预处理对局灶性脑缺血再灌注损伤大鼠线粒体通透性转换孔的影响

目的 探讨七氟烷预处理对局灶性脑缺血再灌注损伤大鼠线粒体通透性转换孔(mPTP)的影响.方法 成年雄性SD大鼠60只,体重250～300 g,随机分为5组(n=12):假手术组(S组)、缺血再灌注组(I/R组)、七氟烷预处理组(Sev组)、线粒体ATP敏感性钾离子通道(mito-KATP通道)阻断剂5-羟癸酸(5-HD)+Sev组和5-HD组.采用大脑中动脉阻断法制备局灶性脑缺血再灌注模型.S组只分离血管不置入线栓;I/R组制备局灶性脑缺血再灌注模型;Sev组吸入2.4%七氟烷60 min行预处理,24 h后制备局灶性脑缺血再灌注模型;5-HD+Sev组腹腔注射5-HD 40mg/kg,30 min后行七氟醚预处理,其余处理同Sev组;5-HD组腹腔注射5-HD 40 mg/kg,30 min后制备局灶性脑缺血再灌注模型.于再灌注24 h时断头取缺血侧顶叶皮层组织,测定mPTP活性,Western blot法测定Bcl-2、Bax表达水平,并计算Bcl-2/Bax比值,采用TUNEL法检测神经元凋亡情况.结果 与S组比较,I/R组、Sev组、5-HD+Sev组和5-HD组凋亡神经元计数升高,Bcl-2和Bax表达上调,Bcl-2/Bax比值升高,mPTP活性升高(P＜0.05);与I/R组比较,Sev组凋亡神经元计数减少,Bcl-2表达上调,Bcl-2/Bax比值升高,mPTP活性降低(P＜0.05);与Sev组比较,5-HD+Sev组和5-HD组Bcl-2表达下凋,Bcl-2/Bax比值降低,mPTP活性升高(P＜0.05);5-HD+Sev组与5-HD组上述指标比较差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 七氟烷预处理可能通过激活神经元mito-KATP通道,上调Bcl-2的表达,从而抑制mPTP的大量开放减轻大鼠局灶性脑缺血再灌注时的神经元凋亡.     

心肌细胞缝隙连接蛋白43在线粒体敏感性钾通道介导七氟醚预处理减轻大鼠离体心脏缺血再灌注中的作用

目的 评价心肌细胞缝隙连接蛋白43(Cx43)在线粒体敏感性钾(mito-KATP)通道介导七氟醚预处理减轻大鼠离体心脏缺血再灌注中的作用.方法 健康成年雄性SD大鼠40只,体重200～250 g,采用Langendorff灌注模型进行离体心脏灌注.采用随机数字表法,将心脏随机分为5组(n=8):对照组(C组)、缺血再灌注组(I/R组)、七氟醚预处理组(S组)、七氟醚预处理+5-羟葵酸(5-HD)组(SH组)和5-HD组(H组).采用结扎左冠状动脉前降支(LAD) 30 min,恢复灌注120 min的方法制备心脏缺血再灌注模型.各组平衡灌注10 min;然后C组持续灌注,仅于LAD下穿线而不结扎;I/R组继续灌注30 min后结扎LAD;S组、S+H组和H组结扎LAD前30 min时分别用3％七氟醚预先饱和的K-H液、3％七氟醚预先饱和的K-H液+100 μmol/L 5-HD和K-H液+100 μmol/L 5-HD灌注15 min,然后用K-H液冲洗15 min.分别于给药前(T0)、给药结束即刻(T1)、缺血前即刻(T2)、缺血30 min(T3)和再灌注120 min(T4)时,记录HR、左心室收缩压(LVSP)、左心室舒张压(LVDP)、左心室最大上升速率(+dp/dtmax)和左心室最大下降速率(- dp/dtmax).再灌注结束后,取左心室心肌组织,测定心肌梗死体积,采用免疫组化法测定心肌细胞Cx43表达,采用Western Blot法测定心肌细胞Cx43和磷酸化Cx43(p-Cx43)表达.结果 与C组比较,I/R组、S+H组和H组HR、LVSP、+dp/dtmax和- dp/dtmax降低,LVDP升高,心肌细胞Cx43和p-Cx43表达下调(P＜0.05).与I/R组比较,S组HR、LVSP、+dp/dtmax和- dp/dtmax升高,LVDP和心肌梗死体积降低,心肌细胞Cx43和p-Cx43表达上调(P＜0.05),S+H组和H组各指标差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 七氟醚预处理可能通过开放mito-KATP通道,促进心肌细胞Cx43磷酸化,减轻大鼠离体心脏缺血再灌注损伤.     

不同浓度七氟醚预处理对大鼠海马神经元缺氧复氧时细胞凋亡的影响及线粒体ATP敏感型钾通道在其中的作用

目的 探讨不同浓度七氟醚预处理对大鼠海马神经元缺氧复氧时细胞凋亡的影响及线粒体ATP敏感型钾通道(mito-KATP通道)在其中的作用.方法 新生(出生＜24 h)SD大鼠,雌雄不拘,体重5～6 g,原代培养海马神经元,接种于培养孔或培养皿中,采用随机数字表法,将其随机分为7组,每组48孔和12皿,正常对照组(C组):不予任何处理;缺氧复氧组(HR组):缺氧4 h复氧24 h;6%七氟醚预处理组(S1 组)、4%七氟醚预处理组(S2 组)、2%七氟醚预处理组(S3 组):分别经6%、4%、2%七氟醚预处理后行缺氧复氧;5-羟葵酸100 μmol/L预处理组(5-HD组):经mito-KATP通道阻断剂5-羟葵酸(终浓度100 μmol/L)预处理后进行缺氧复氧;5-羟葵酸100 μmol/L+6%七氟醚预处理组(5-HD+S组):同时行5-羟葵酸和6%七氟醚预处理后进行缺氧复氧.各组以上处理结束后,测定神经元活力、凋亡率、Bcl-2和Bax蛋白的表达水平.结果 与C组比较,其余6组海马神经元活力降低,细胞凋亡率升高,Bcl-2和Bax蛋白表达上调(P＜0.01);与HR组比较,S1组～S3组海马神经元活力增强,细胞凋亡率降低,Bcl-2蛋白表达上调,Bax蛋白表达下调(P＜0.01),5-HD组和5-HD+S组上述指标比较差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05);与S1组比较,S2组、S3组和5-HD+S组海马神经元活力降低,细胞凋亡率升高,Bcl-2蛋白表达下调,Bax蛋白表达上调(P＜0.01);与S2组比较,S3组海马神经元活力降低,细胞凋亡率升高,Bcl-2蛋白表达下调,Bax蛋白表达上调(P＜0.01).结论 七氟醚预处理可抑制大鼠海马神经元缺氧复氧时细胞凋亡,从而减轻神经元损伤,且呈浓度依赖性,机制可能与开放神经元mito-KATP通道,上调Bcl-2蛋白表达,下调Bax蛋白表达有关.

Abstract：

Objective To investigate the effect of preconditioning with different concentrations of sevoflurane on hypoxia-reoxygenation(H/R)-induced apoptosis in rat hippocampal neurons and the role of mitochondrial KATP(mito-KATP)channels.Methods Primary cultured hippocampal neurons isolated from newborn SD rats(＜24h)of both sexes,weighing 5-6 g,were randomly divided into 7 groups with 48 wells and 12 dishes in each one:control group(C group),H/R group,preconditioning with 6%,4%and 2% sevoflurane groups(S1-3 groups),5-hydroxydecanoate(5-HD,mito-KATP channel blocker)100 μmol/L preconditioning group(5-HD group)and preconditioning with 5-HD 100 μmol/L+6% sevoflurane group(5-HD+S group).The neurons were exposed to 4 h hypoxia followed by 24 h reoxygenation. In S1-3 groups, preconditioning was performed with 6% , 4% and 2% sevoflurane respectively before H/R. In 5-HD group, preconditioning was performed with 5-HD (final concentration 100 μmol/L) before H/R. In 5-HD + S group, preconditioning was performed with 5-HD 100 μmol/L and 6% sevoflurane before H/R. The neuronal viability, apoptosis rate and expression of Bcl-2 and Bax were determined after 24 h reoxygenation.Results The neuronal viability was significantly lower,while the apoptosis rate and expression of Bcl-2 and Bax were significantly higher in the other 6 groups than in group C(P＜0.01).The neuronal viability and expression of Bcl-2 were significantly higher,while the apoptosis rate and Bax expression were lower in S1-3 groups than in group H/R. There was no significant difference in the parameters mentioned above between 5-HD and 5-HD + S groups(P＞0.05).The neuronal viability and expression of Bcl-2 were significantly lower, while the apoptosis rate and Bax expression were higher in S2, S3 and 5-HD + S groups than in group S1, and in group S3 than in group S2(P＜0.0l) .Conclusion Sevoflurane preconditioning can inhibit H/R-induced apoptosis in rat hippocampal neurons and reduce the injury to neurons in a concentration-dependent manner, and the underlying mechanism may be related to activation of mito-KATP channels, up-regulation of Bcl-2 expression and down-regulation of Bax expression.     

Sevoflurane Reduces Myocardial Infarct Size and Decreases the Time Threshold for Ischemic Preconditioning in Dogs

Background: Recent evidence indicates that volatile anesthetics exert protective effects during myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. The authors tested the hypothesis that sevoflurane decreases myocardial infarct size by activating adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels and reduces the time threshold of ischemic preconditioning necessary to protect against infarction.

Methods: Barbiturate-anesthetized dogs (n = 75) were instrumented for measurement of aortic and left ventricular pressures and maximum rate of increase of left ventricular pressure and were subjected to a 60-min left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery occlusion followed by 3-h reperfusion. In four separate groups, dogs received vehicle or the KATP channel antagonist glyburide (0.1 mg/kg intravenously), and 1 minimum alveolar concentration sevoflurane (administered until immediately before coronary artery occlusion) in the presence or absence of glyburide. In three additional experimental groups, sevoflurane was discontinued 30 min (memory) before the 60-min LAD occlusion or a 2-min LAD occlusion as an ischemic preconditioning stimulus was used with or without subsequent sevoflurane (with memory) pretreatment. Regional myocardial perfusion and infarct size were measured with radioactive microspheres and triphenyltetrazolium staining, respectively.

Results: Vehicle (23 +/- 1% of the area at risk; mean +/- SEM) and glyburide (23 +/- 2%) alone produced equivalent effects on myocardial infarct size. Sevoflurane significantly (P < 0.05) decreased infarct size (13 +/- 2%). This beneficial effect was abolished by glyburide (21 +/- 3%). Neither the 2-min LAD occlusion nor sevoflurane followed by 30 min of memory were protective alone, but together, sevoflurane enhanced the effects of the brief ischemic stimulus and profoundly reduced infarct size (9 +/- 2%).     

Pre-occlusion ischaemia, not sevoflurane, successfully preconditions the myocardium against further damage in porcine in vivo hearts

BACKGROUND: Sevoflurane is proposed to possess important tissue protective effects based on experimental ischaemia-reperfusion studies from models with collateral coronary flow, unlike that of the normal human or the porcine heart. The objective was to evaluate the infarct-reducing capability of pre-ischaemic sevoflurane inhalation on myocardial infarct size in a porcine model. METHODS AND MATERIALS: The study comprised 33 pigs under pentobarbital anaesthesia. Animals were divided into three groups: control (CON), sevoflurane intervention (SEVO) and ischaemic preconditioning (IP). The distal left anterior descending coronary artery was occluded for 40 min with a percutaneous coronary intervention catheter. Before occlusion, group IP underwent two 5-min ischaemia cycles, whereas SEVO received two 5-min sevoflurane 4%v/v inhalation cycles. Animals were reperfused for 150 min. We then measured risk area (AAR) and infarct size (IS) after tetrazolium staining. The [IS/AAR-ratio] was calculated. Haemodynamics and transthoracic tissue-Doppler echocardiography were monitored. RESULTS: Control animals developed a myocardial infarction in 46.4 (+/- 6.2)% (mean +/- SEM) of the AAR. Both SEVO and IP groups had infarction mitigated, to 34.4 (5.7)% and 23.1 (5.3)%, respectively; however, only in the IP group was this significant. No significant differences between groups with respect to AAR, haemodynamics or echocardiographic variables were found. CONCLUSION: Pre-ischaemic sevoflurane was found to reduce the extent of myocardial necrosis, but the change was not significant, whereas IP reduced IS by 50% (P= 0.038). Cardioprotection is species related and no previous results from porcine models have found sevoflurane to reduce IS. Anaesthetic washout, insufficient exposure or collateral coronary blood supply, dissimilar to human, may account for positive results in rodent models.     

线粒体ATP敏感性钾通道在七氟醚预处理减轻大鼠脑缺血再灌注损伤中的作用

目的 探讨线粒体ATP敏感性钾通道(mito-K_(ATP)通道)在七氟醚预处理减轻大鼠脑缺血再灌注损伤中的作用.方法 健康雄性SD大鼠100只,体重250～300 g,随机分为5组(n=20):假手术组(S组)、缺血再灌注组(I/R组)、七氟醚预处理组(Sevo组)、mito-K_(ATP)通道阻断剂5-羟基葵酸(5-HD)组及5-HD+七氟醚预处理组(5-HD+Sevo组).采用线栓法制备大鼠局灶性脑缺血再灌注模型,七氟醚预处理方法:吸入2.4%七氟醚60 min后吸入纯氧洗脱15 min,停止吸入七氟醚后24 h时制备脑缺血再灌注模型.分别于再灌注6、24 h时进行神经功能损伤评分,计算脑梗死体积百分比,采用Western blot法测定蛋白激酶Cε(PKCε)膜转位水平.结果 与S组比较,其余各组大鼠再灌注6、24 h时神经功能损伤评分升高,脑梗死体积百分比及脑组织PKCε膜转位水平升高(P<0.05);与I/R组、5-HD组及5-HD+Sevo组比较,Sevo组大鼠再灌注6、24 h时神经功能损伤评分降低,脑梗死体积百分比降低,再灌注6 h时脑组织PKCε膜转位水平升高(P<0.05).结论 mito-K_(ATP)通道介导了七氟醚预处理减轻大鼠局灶性脑缺血再灌注损伤的作用,其机制可能与调控PKCε膜转位有关.     

Mitochondrial Adenosine Triphosphate-regulated Potassium Channel Opening Acts as a Trigger for Isoflurane-induced Preconditioning by Generating Reactive Oxygen Species

Background: Whether the opening of mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate-regulated potassium (KATP) channels is a trigger or an end effector of anesthetic-induced preconditioning is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that the opening of mitochondrial KATP channels triggers isoflurane-induced preconditioning by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) in vivo.

Methods: Pentobarbital-anesthetized rabbits were subjected to a 30-min coronary artery occlusion followed by 3 h reperfusion. Rabbits were randomly assigned to receive a vehicle (0.9% saline) or the selective mitochondrial KATP channel blocker 5-hydroxydecanoate (5-HD) alone 10 min before or immediately after a 30-min exposure to 1.0 minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) isoflurane. In another series of experiments, the fluorescent probe dihydroethidium was used to assess superoxide anion production during administration of 5-HD or the ROS scavengers N-acetylcysteine or N-2-mercaptopropionyl glycine (2-MPG) in the presence or absence of 1.0 MAC isoflurane. Myocardial infarct size and superoxide anion production were measured using triphenyltetrazolium staining and confocal fluorescence microscopy, respectively.

Results: Isoflurane (P < 0.05) decreased infarct size to 19 +/- 3% (mean +/- SEM) of the left ventricular area at risk as compared to the control (38 +/- 4%). 5-HD administered before but not after isoflurane abolished this beneficial effect (37 +/- 4% as compared to 24 +/- 3%). 5-HD alone had no effect on infarct size (42 +/- 3%). Isoflurane increased fluorescence intensity. Pretreatment with N-acetylcysteine, 2-MPG, or 5-HD before isoflurane abolished increases in fluorescence, but administration of 5-HD after isoflurane only partially attenuated increases in fluorescence produced by the volatile anesthetic agent.     

Preconditioning with Sevoflurane Reduces Changes in Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide during Ischemia-Reperfusion in Isolated Hearts: Reversal by 5-Hydroxydecanoic Acid

Background: Ischemia causes an imbalance in mitochondrial metabolism and accumulation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). We showed that anesthetic preconditioning (APC), like ischemic preconditioning, improved mitochondrial NADH energy balance during ischemia and improved function and reduced infarct size on reperfusion. Opening adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels may be involved in triggering APC. The authors tested if effects of APC on NADH concentrations before, during, and after ischemia are reversible by 5-hydroxydecanoate (5-HD), a putative mitochondrial KATP channel blocker.

Methods: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide fluorescence was measured in 60 guinea pig Langendorff-prepared hearts assigned into five groups: (1) no treatment before ischemia; (2) APC by exposure to 1.3 mm sevoflurane for 15 min; (3) 200 [mu]m 5-HD from 5 min before to 15 min after sevoflurane exposure; (4) 35 min 5-HD alone; and (5) no treatment and no ischemia. Sevoflurane was washed out for 30 min, and 5-HD for 15 min, before 30-min ischemia and 120-min reperfusion.

Results: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide was reversibly increased during sevoflurane exposure before ischemia, and the increase and rate of decline in NADH during ischemia were reduced after APC. 5-HD abolished these changes in NADH. On reperfusion, function was improved and infarct size reduced after APC compared with other groups.     

Desflurane-induced preconditioning alters calcium-induced mitochondrial permeability transition

BACKGROUND: Recent investigations have focused on the pivotal role of the mitochondria in the underlying mechanisms volatile anesthetic-induced myocardial preconditioning. This study aimed at examining the effect of anesthetic preconditioning on mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) pore opening. METHODS: Anesthetized open chest rabbits were randomized to one of four groups and underwent 10 min of ischemia, except for the sham 1 group (n = 12). Before this, they underwent a treatment period consisting of (1) no intervention (ischemic group; n = 12), (2) 30 min of desflurane inhalation (8.9% end-tidal concentration) followed by a 15-min washout period (desflurane group; n = 12), or (3) ischemic preconditioning (IPC group; n = 12). A second set of experiments was performed to evaluate the effect of a putative mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channel antagonist, 5-hydroxydecanoate (5-HD). The animals underwent the same protocol as previously, plus pretreatment with 5 mg/kg 5-HD. They were randomized to one of five groups: the sham 2 group, receiving no 5-HD (n = 12); the sham 5-HD group (n = 12); the ischemic 5-HD group (n = 12), the desflurane 5-HD group (n = 12), and the IPC 5-HD group (n = 12). At the end of the protocol, the hearts were excised, and mitochondria were isolated. MPT pore opening was assessed by measuring the amount of calcium required to trigger a massive calcium release indicative of MPT pore opening. RESULTS: Desflurane and IPC group mitochondria needed a higher calcium load than ischemic group mitochondria (362 +/- 84, 372 +/- 74, and 268 +/- 110 microM calcium, respectively; P < 0.05) to induce MPT pore opening. The sham 1 and sham 2 groups needed a similar amount of calcium to trigger mitochondrial calcium release (472 +/- 70 and 458 +/- 90 microM calcium, respectively). 5-HD preadministration had no effect on sham animals (458 +/- 90 and 440 +/- 128 microM calcium without and with 5-HD, respectively) and ischemic group animals (268 +/- 110 and 292 +/- 102 microM calcium without and with 5-HD, respectively) but abolished the effects of desflurane on calcium-induced MPT pore opening (362 +/- 84 microM calcium without 5-HD vs. 238 +/- 96 microM calcium with 5-HD; P < 0.05) and IPC (372 +/- 74 microM calcium without 5-HD vs. 270 +/- 104 microM calcium with 5-HD; P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Like ischemic preconditioning, desflurane improved the resistance of the transition pore to calcium-induced opening. This effect was inhibited by 5-HD, suggesting a link between mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium and MPT.     

Calcium preconditioning, but not ischemic preconditioning, bypasses the adenosine triphosphate-dependent potassium (KATP) channel.

BACKGROUND: Recent evidence has implicated the KATP channel as an important mediator of ischemic preconditioning (IPC). Indeed, patients taking oral sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agents (i.e., KATP channel inhibitors) for treatment of diabetes mellitus are resistant to the otherwise profoundly protective effects of IPC. Unfortunately, many cardiopulmonary bypass patients, who may benefit from IPC, are chronically exposed to these agents. Calcium preconditioning (CPC) is a potent form of similar myocardial protection which may or may not utilize the KATP channel in its mechanism of protection. The purpose of this study was to determine whether CPC may bypass the KATP channel in its mechanism of action. If so, CPC may offer an alternative to IPC in patients chronically exposed to these agents. METHODS: Isolated rat hearts (n = 6-8/group) were perfused (Langendorff) and received KATP channel inhibition (glibenclamide) or saline vehicle 10 min prior to either a CPC or IPC preconditioning stimulus or neither (ischemia and reperfusion, I/R). Hearts were subjected to global warm I/R (20 min/40 min). Postischemic myocardial functional recovery was determined by measuring developed pressure (DP), coronary flow (CF), and compliance (end diastolic pressure, EDP) with a MacLab pressure digitizer. RESULTS: Both CPC and IPC stimuli protected myocardium against postischemic dysfunction (P < 0.05 vs I/R; ANOVA with Bonferroni/Dunn): DP increased from 52 +/- 4 (I/R) to 79 +/- 2 and 83 +/- 4 mmHg; CF increased from 11 +/- 0.7 to 17 +/- 2 and 16 +/- 1 ml/min; and EDP decreased (compliance improved) from 50 +/- 7 to 27 +/- 5 and 31 +/- 7 mmHg. However, KATP channel inhibition abolished protection in hearts preconditioned with IPC (P < 0.05 vs IPC alone), but not in those preconditioned with CPC (P > 0.05 vs CPC alone). CONCLUSIONS: (1) Both IPC and CPC provide similar myocardial protection; (2) IPC and CPC operate via different mechanisms; i.e., IPC utilizes the KATP channel whereas CPC does not; and (3) CPC may offer a means of bypassing the deleterious effects of KATP channel inhibition in diabetic patients chronically exposed to oral sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agents.     

Sevoflurane reduces myocardial infarct size and decreases the time threshold for ischemic preconditioning in dogs

BACKGROUND: Recent evidence indicates that volatile anesthetics exert protective effects during myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. The authors tested the hypothesis that sevoflurane decreases myocardial infarct size by activating adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium (K(ATP)) channels and reduces the time threshold of ischemic preconditioning necessary to protect against infarction. METHODS: Barbiturate-anesthetized dogs (n = 75) were instrumented for measurement of aortic and left ventricular pressures and maximum rate of increase of left ventricular pressure and were subjected to a 60-min left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery occlusion followed by 3-h reperfusion. In four separate groups, dogs received vehicle or the K(ATP) channel antagonist glyburide (0.1 mg/kg intravenously), and 1 minimum alveolar concentration sevoflurane (administered until immediately before coronary artery occlusion) in the presence or absence of glyburide. In three additional experimental groups, sevoflurane was discontinued 30 min (memory) before the 60-min LAD occlusion or a 2-min LAD occlusion as an ischemic preconditioning stimulus was used with or without subsequent sevoflurane (with memory) pretreatment. Regional myocardial perfusion and infarct size were measured with radioactive microspheres and triphenyltetrazolium staining, respectively. RESULTS: Vehicle (23 +/- 1% of the area at risk; mean +/- SEM) and glyburide (23 +/- 2%) alone produced equivalent effects on myocardial infarct size. Sevoflurane significantly (P < 0.05) decreased infarct size (13 +/- 2%). This beneficial effect was abolished by glyburide (21 +/- 3%). Neither the 2-min LAD occlusion nor sevoflurane followed by 30 min of memory were protective alone, but together, sevoflurane enhanced the effects of the brief ischemic stimulus and profoundly reduced infarct size (9 +/- 2%). CONCLUSION: Sevoflurane reduces myocardial infarct size by activating K(ATP) channels and reduces the time threshold for ischemic preconditioning independent of hemodynamic effects in vivo.     

Anesthetic preconditioning attenuates mitochondrial Ca2+ overload during ischemia in Guinea pig intact hearts: reversal by 5-hydroxydecanoic acid

Cardiac ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury is associated with mitochondrial (m)Ca(2+) overload. Anesthetic preconditioning (APC) attenuates IR injury. We hypothesized that mCa(2+) overload is decreased by APC in association with mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate-sensitive K(+) (mK(ATP)) channel opening. By use of indo-1 fluorescence, m[Ca(2+)] was measured in 40 guinea pig Langendorff-prepared hearts. Control (CON) hearts received no treatment for 50 min before IR; APC hearts were exposed to 1.2 mM (8.8 vol%) sevoflurane for 15 min; APC + 5-hydroxydecanoate (5-HD) hearts received 200 micro M 5-HD from 5 min before to 15 min after sevoflurane exposure; and 5-HD hearts received 5-HD for 35 min. Sevoflurane was washed out for 30 min and 5-HD for 15 min before 30 min of global ischemia and 120 min of reperfusion. During ischemia, the peak m[Ca(2+)] accumulation was decreased by APC from 489 +/- 37 nM (CON) to 355 +/- 28 nM (P < 0.05); this was abolished by 5-HD (475 +/- 38 nM m[Ca(2+)]). APC resulted in improved function and reduced infarct size on reperfusion, which also was blocked by 5-HD. 5-HD pretreatment alone did not affect m[Ca(2+)] (470 +/- 34 nM) or IR injury. Thus, preservation of function and morphology on reperfusion is associated with attenuated mCa(2+) accumulation during ischemia. Reversal by 5-HD suggests that APC may be triggered by opening mK(ATP) channels. IMPLICATIONS: Myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury is associated with mitochondrial Ca(2+) overload. Mitochondrial [Ca(2+)] and function were measured in guinea pig isolated hearts. Anesthetic preconditioning attenuated mitochondrial Ca(2+) overload during ischemia, improved function, and reduced infarct size. Reversal by 5-hydroxydecanoate suggests that anesthetic preconditioning may be triggered by mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate-sensitive K channel opening.     

Desflurane-induced Preconditioning Alters Calcium-induced Mitochondrial Permeability Transition

Background: Recent investigations have focused on the pivotal role of the mitochondria in the underlying mechanisms volatile anesthetic-induced myocardial preconditioning. This study aimed at examining the effect of anesthetic preconditioning on mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) pore opening.

Methods: Anesthetized open chest rabbits were randomized to one of four groups and underwent 10 min of ischemia, except for the sham 1 group (n = 12). Before this, they underwent a treatment period consisting of (1) no intervention (ischemic group; n = 12), (2) 30 min of desflurane inhalation (8.9% end-tidal concentration) followed by a 15-min washout period (desflurane group; n = 12), or (3) ischemic preconditioning (IPC group; n = 12). A second set of experiments was performed to evaluate the effect of a putative mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channel antagonist, 5-hydroxydecanoate (5-HD). The animals underwent the same protocol as previously, plus pretreatment with 5 mg/kg 5-HD. They were randomized to one of five groups: the sham 2 group, receiving no 5-HD (n = 12); the sham 5-HD group (n = 12); the ischemic 5-HD group (n = 12), the desflurane 5-HD group (n = 12), and the IPC 5-HD group (n = 12). At the end of the protocol, the hearts were excised, and mitochondria were isolated. MPT pore opening was assessed by measuring the amount of calcium required to trigger a massive calcium release indicative of MPT pore opening.

Results: Desflurane and IPC group mitochondria needed a higher calcium load than ischemic group mitochondria (362 +/- 84, 372 +/- 74, and 268 +/- 110 [mu]m calcium, respectively; P < 0.05) to induce MPT pore opening. The sham 1 and sham 2 groups needed a similar amount of calcium to trigger mitochondrial calcium release (472 +/- 70 and 458 +/- 90 [mu]m calcium, respectively). 5-HD preadministration had no effect on sham animals (458 +/- 90 and 440 +/- 128 [mu]m calcium without and with 5-HD, respectively) and ischemic group animals (268 +/- 110 and 292 +/- 102 [mu]m calcium without and with 5-HD, respectively) but abolished the effects of desflurane on calcium-induced MPT pore opening (362 +/- 84 [mu]m calcium without 5-HD vs. 238 +/- 96 [mu]m calcium with 5-HD; P < 0.05) and IPC (372 +/- 74 [mu]m calcium without 5-HD vs. 270 +/- 104 [mu]m calcium with 5-HD; P < 0.05).     

Sarcolemmal and mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate- dependent potassium channels: mechanism of desflurane-induced cardioprotection

BACKGROUND: Volatile anesthetic-induced preconditioning is mediated by adenosine triphosphate-dependent potassium (KATP) channels; however, the subcellular location of these channels is unknown. The authors tested the hypothesis that desflurane reduces experimental myocardial infarct size by activation of specific sarcolemmal and mitochondrial KATP channels. METHODS: Barbiturate-anesthetized dogs (n = 88) were acutely instrumented for measurement of aortic and left ventricular pressures. All dogs were subjected to a 60-min left anterior descending coronary artery occlusion followed by 3-h reperfusion. In four separate groups, dogs received vehicle (0.9% saline) or the nonselective KATP channel antagonist glyburide (0.1 mg/kg intravenously) in the presence or absence of 1 minimum alveolar concentration desflurane. In four additional groups, dogs received 45-min intracoronary infusions of the selective sarcolemmal (HMR 1098; 1 microg. kg-1. min-1) or mitochondrial (5-hydroxydecanoate [5-HD]; 150 microg. kg-1. min-1) KATP channel antagonists in the presence or absence of desflurane. Myocardial perfusion and infarct size were measured with radioactive microspheres and triphenyltetrazolium staining, respectively. RESULTS: Desflurane significantly (P < 0.05) decreased infarct size to 10 +/- 2% (mean +/- SEM) of the area at risk as compared with control experiments (25 +/- 3% of area at risk). This beneficial effect of desflurane was abolished by glyburide (25 +/- 2% of area at risk). Glyburide (24 +/- 2%), HMR 1098 (21 +/- 4%), and 5-HD (24 +/- 2% of area at risk) alone had no effects on myocardial infarct size. HMR 1098 and 5-HD abolished the protective effects of desflurane (19 +/- 3% and 22 +/- 2% of area at risk, respectively). CONCLUSION: Desflurane reduces myocardial infarct size in vivo, and the results further suggest that both sarcolemmal and mitochondrial KATP channels could be involved.     

Ketamine, but Not S (+)-ketamine, Blocks Ischemic Preconditioning in Rabbit Hearts In Vivo

Background: Ketamine blocks KATP channels in isolated cells and abolishes the cardioprotective effect of ischemic preconditioning in vitro. The authors investigated the effects of ketamine and S (+)-ketamine on ischemic preconditioning in the rabbit heart in vivo.

Methods: In 46 [alpha]-chloralose-anesthetized rabbits, left ventricular pressure (tip manometer), cardiac output (ultrasonic flow probe), and myocardial infarct size (triphenyltetrazolium staining) at the end of the experiment were measured. All rabbits were subjected to 30 min of occlusion of a major coronary artery and 2 h of subsequent reperfusion. The control group underwent the ischemia-reperfusion program without preconditioning. Ischemic preconditioning was elicited by 5-min coronary artery occlusion followed by 10 min of reperfusion before the 30 min period of myocardial ischemia (preconditioning group). To test whether ketamine or S (+)-ketamine blocks the preconditioning-induced cardioprotection, each (10 mg kg-1) was administered 5 min before the preconditioning ischemia. To test any effect of ketamine itself, ketamine was also administered without preconditioning at the corresponding time point.

Results: Hemodynamic baseline values were not significantly different between groups [left ventricular pressure, 107 +/- 13 mmHg (mean +/- SD); cardiac output, 183 +/- 28 ml/min]. During coronary artery occlusion, left ventricular pressure was reduced to 83 +/- 14% of baseline and cardiac output to 84 +/- 19%. After 2 h of reperfusion, functional recovery was not significantly different among groups (left ventricular pressure, 77 +/- 19%; cardiac output, 86 +/- 18%). Infarct size was reduced from 45 +/- 16% of the area at risk in controls to 24 +/- 17% in the preconditioning group (P = 0.03). The administration of ketamine had no effect on infarct size in animals without preconditioning (48 +/- 18%), but abolished the cardioprotective effects of ischemic preconditioning (45 +/- 19%, P = 0.03). S (+)-ketamine did not affect ischemic preconditioning (25 +/- 11%, P = 1.0).     

Late preconditioning is blocked by racemic ketamine, but not by S(+)-ketamine

Racemic ketamine blocks K(ATP) channels in isolated cells and abolishes short-term cardioprotection against prolonged ischemia. We investigated the effects of racemic ketamine and S(+)-ketamine on ischemic late preconditioning (LPC) in the rabbit heart in vivo. A coronary occluder was chronically implanted in 36 rabbits. After recovery, the rabbits divided into four groups (each n = 9). LPC was induced in conscious rabbits by a 5-min coronary occlusion. Twenty-four hours later, the animals were instrumented for measurement of left ventricular systolic pressure (LVSP, tip manometer), cardiac output (CO, ultrasonic flowprobe) and myocardial infarct size (triphenyltetrazolium staining). All rabbits were then subjected to 30-min coronary occlusion and 2 h reperfusion. Controls underwent the ischemia-reperfusion program without LPC. To test whether racemic ketamine or S(+)-ketamine blocks the cardioprotection induced by LPC, the drugs (10 mg/kg) were given 10 min before the 30-min ischemia. Hemodynamic values were not significantly different between groups during the experiments (baseline: LVSP, 94 +/- 3 mm Hg [mean +/- SEM] and CO, 243 +/- 9 mL/min; coronary occlusion: LVSP, 93% +/- 4% of baseline and CO, 84% +/- 4%; after 2 h of reperfusion: LVSP, 85% +/- 4% and CO, 83% +/- 4%). LPC reduced infarct size from 44% +/- 3% of the area at risk in controls to 22% +/- 3% (P = 0.002). Administration of racemic ketamine abolished the cardioprotective effects of LPC (44 +/- 4%, P = 0.002). S(+)-ketamine did not affect the infarct size reduction induced by LPC (26 +/- 6%, P = 0.88). IMPLICATIONS: Racemic ketamine, but not S(+)-ketamine, blocks the cardioprotection induced by ischemic late preconditioning in rabbit hearts in vivo. Thus, the influence of ketamine on ischemic late preconditioning is most likely enantiomer specific, and the use of S(+)-ketamine may be preferable in patients with coronary artery disease.     

Sarcolemmal and Mitochondrial Adenosine Triphosphate- dependent Potassium Channels: Mechanism of Desflurane-induced Cardioprotection

Background: Volatile anesthetic-induced preconditioning is mediated by adenosine triphosphate-dependent potassium (KATP) channels; however, the subcellular location of these channels is unknown. The authors tested the hypothesis that desflurane reduces experimental myocardial infarct size by activation of specific sarcolemmal and mitochondrial KATP channels.

Methods: Barbiturate-anesthetized dogs (n = 88) were acutely instrumented for measurement of aortic and left ventricular pressures. All dogs were subjected to a 60-min left anterior descending coronary artery occlusion followed by 3-h reperfusion. In four separate groups, dogs received vehicle (0.9% saline) or the nonselective KATP channel antagonist glyburide (0.1 mg/kg intravenously) in the presence or absence of 1 minimum alveolar concentration desflurane. In four additional groups, dogs received 45-min intracoronary infusions of the selective sarcolemmal (HMR 1098; 1 [mu]g [middle dot] kg-1 [middle dot] min-1) or mitochondrial (5-hydroxydecanoate [5-HD]; 150 [mu]g [middle dot] kg-1 [middle dot] min-1) KATP channel antagonists in the presence or absence of desflurane. Myocardial perfusion and infarct size were measured with radioactive microspheres and triphenyltetrazolium staining, respectively.

Results: Desflurane significantly (P < 0.05) decreased infarct size to 10 +/- 2% (mean +/- SEM) of the area at risk as compared with control experiments (25 +/- 3% of area at risk). This beneficial effect of desflurane was abolished by glyburide (25 +/- 2% of area at risk). Glyburide (24 +/- 2%), HMR 1098 (21 +/- 4%), and 5-HD (24 +/- 2% of area at risk) alone had no effects on myocardial infarct size. HMR 1098 and 5-HD abolished the protective effects of desflurane (19 +/- 3% and 22 +/- 2% of area at risk, respectively).     

Dual Exposure to Sevoflurane Improves Anesthetic Preconditioning in Intact Hearts

Background: Anesthetic preconditioning (APC) with sevoflurane reduces myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury. The authors tested whether two brief exposures to sevoflurane would lead to a better preconditioning state than would a single longer exposure and whether dual exposure to a lower (L) concentration of sevoflurane would achieve an outcome similar to that associated with a single exposure to a higher (H) concentration.

Methods: Langendorff-prepared guinea pig hearts were exposed to 0.4 mm sevoflurane once for 15 min (H1-15; n = 8) or 0.4 mm (H2-5; n = 8) or 0.2 mm sevoflurane (L2-5; n = 8) twice for 5 min, with a 5-min washout period interspersed. Sevoflurane was then washed out for 20 min before 30 min of global no-flow ischemia and 120 min of reperfusion. Control hearts (n = 8) were not subjected to APC. Left ventricular pressure was measured isovolumetrically. Ventricular infarct size was determined by tetrazolium staining and cumulative planimetry. Values are expressed as mean +/- SD.

Results: The authors found a better functional return and a lesser percentage of infarction on reperfusion in H2-5 (28 +/- 9%) than in H1-15 (36 +/- 8%; P < 0.05), L2-5 (43 +/- 6%; P < 0.05), or control hearts (52 +/- 7%; P < 0.05).