Author Index to Volume 9

The absorption in the mouth of volatile and aerosol components in cigarette smoke was studied in humans. Determinations were made of acetaldehyde, isoprene, acetone, acetonitile, toluene, and particulate matter using gaschromatography and fluorometric methods. The amount of the various compounds in smoke coming directly from the cigarette and smoke which had stayed in the mouth for two seconds were determined. The results were expressed as percent absorption. The absorption was higher for water- soluble compounds (around 60%) than for nonwater-soluble compounds (around 20%). No correlation was found between boiling point and absorption. Sixteen percent of the particulate matter was retained in the mouth. A lower absorption was found among heavy smokers for isoprene, acetaldehyde, and acetonitrile.     

Baseline measurements of smoke exposure among wildland firefighters

Extensive measurements of smoke exposure among wildland firefighters are summarized, showing that firefighters can be exposed to significant levels of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritants, including formaldehyde, acrolein, and respirable particulate matter. Benzene was also measured and found to be well below permissible exposure limits, with the highest concentrations occurring among firefighters working with engines and torches burning petroleum-based fuel. Exposures to all pollutants were higher among firefighters at prescribed burns than at wildfires, while shift-average smoke exposures were lowest among firefighters who performed initial attack of wildfires in the early stages of the fires. Smoke exposure reaches its highest levels among firefighters maintaining fire within designated firelines and performing direct attack of spot fires that cross firelines. These events and the associated smoke exposures were positively correlated with increasing ambient wind speeds, which hamper fire management and carry the convective plume of the fire into firefighters' breathing zone. The pollutants measured in smoke were reasonably well-correlated with each other, enabling estimation of exposure to multiple pollutants in smoke from measurements of a single pollutant such as carbon monoxide.     

Exposure of passive smokers to tobacco smoke constituents

Summary In an unventilated room (with or without the presence of ten volunteers) the atmosphere was polluted with sidestream smoke from cigarettes or with the gasphase or constituents of the gasphase of sidestream smoke. One control experiment with no intended air pollution was performed.The air concentrations of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, cyanide, acrolein, other aldehydes, nicotine, and total particulate matter were measured.By intermittent addition of freshly generated smoke over the three hour experimental period a constant air concentration of 20 ppm carbon monoxide was sustained. When no persons were present, the air concentration of the other measured tobacco smoke constituents remained constant. When persons were present, however, air concentrations of both gasphase and particulate phase constituents decreased during the experimental period.A considerable variation in the degree of exposure of the passive smokers to the various tobacco smoke constituents was found.In some of the experiments questionnaires concerning subjective annoyance, eye-, nose- and throat irritation were completed by the subjects. Stay in a gasphase polluted atmosphere was found equally annoying as in an atmosphere polluted with whole sidestream smoke. Air pollution with acrolein caused considerably less discomfort and this did not differ from the annoyance caused by staying in the closed, unventilated room with no intended air pollution.It is pointed out that in spite of an often considerable subjective discomfort, exposing non-smokers to tobacco smoke under realistic conditions will not cause inhalation of such amounts of the components of tobacco smoke traditionally considered harmful, that a lasting, adverse health effect in otherwise healthy, grown-up individuals seems probable.This work was supported by a grant from Forschungsgesellschaft Rauchen and Gesundheit. D-2000 Hamburg. Federal Republic of Germany     

Effect of individually diversified smoking habits on carbon monoxide retention in the respiratory tract of active smokers and validation of results based of environmental categories

Cigarette smoke, treated as smoke inhaled by active smokers, was generated using self-made smoking-machine and with application of formerly established parameters of individual smoking process. Carbon monoxide was analysed in generated smoke. It was concluded, that diversified smoking process is very individual (different volume and duration time of puff and intervals between puffs) and therefore influences levels of carbon monoxide in MS (from 3.5 to 17.5 mg/cigarette). Simultaneously, carbon monoxide was analysed in exhaled air by active smokers just after each puff. Difference between inhaled and exhaled dose of carbon monoxide was treated to calculated individual retention of carbon monoxide in active smoker's respiratory tract. Mean relative retention was 57.6% and differences between single values were lower than in the cases of CO levels in MS and absolute retention. Estimation of carbon monoxide inhaled doses was proceeded according to environmental standards. Forecasted blood concentration of HbCO after smoking of twenty cigarettes equals 2.3 to 10.4%. These results are similar to the situation that people would inhale air containing CO with concentration 1.2 to 5.5-times higher than limiting value.     

Biomass fuel combustion and health

Biomass fuels (wood, agricultural waste, and dung) are used by about half the world''s population as a major, often the only, source of domestic energy for cooking and heating. The smoke emissions from these fuels are an important source of indoor air pollution, especially in rural communities in developing countries. These emissions contain important pollutants that adversely affect health—such as suspended particulate matter and polycyclic organic matter which includes a number of known carcinogens, such as benzo[a]pyrene, as well as gaseous pollutants like carbon monoxide and formaldehyde.     

Response to Treatment in Silicotuberculosis

The effect of each of several pollutants on the health of urban families on the lower East Side of Hew York city has been assessed. Prevalence of certain symptoms on one day of the week (Monday) was assessed according to level of each pollutant (low, medium, or high). Prevalence was treated as a binomial variable (number of “yes” responses/number of “yes” and “no” respouses) whereas pollutant level was a continueous variable (but ordered, by thirds), according to the method of Armitage.

In summer, in children under 8 years of age, prevalence of respiratory symptoms was directly related to increasing levels of particulate matter and of carbon monoxide.

In heavy smokers, prevalence of eye irritation and headache was directly related to increasing levels of carbon monoxide.     

Annoyance and irritation by passive smoking

The acute irritating and annoying effects of smoke have been investigated in field and laboratory studies by examining the concentration of some smoke components in air. In the workplace, 30 to 70% of the indoor carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and particulate concentrations are due to tobacco smoke; 25-40% of the employees are disturbed and/or annoyed by smoke and 25% suffer from eye irritation at work. Subjective eye, nose, and throat irritations and eye blink rate increase with increasing smoke concentration and increasing exposure duration. Irritation is due mainly to the particulate phase of environmental tobacco smoke, whereas the gas phase is, to a large extent, responsible for annoyance. It is concluded that healthy individuals can tolerate an environmental tobacco smoke level that corresponds to a carbon monoxide concentration of 1.5 to 2.0 ppm. Above these limits, countermeasures to protect passive smokers are necessary. In order not to exceed the upper tolerable threshold limit of 2.0 ppm carbon monoxide, it is necessary to have a fresh air supply of 33 m3 per hour per cigarette smoked. Special attention should be paid to groups of people with increased sensitivity to environmental tobacco smoke, e.g., asthmatics, allergic individuals, chronic bronchitis sufferers, and children.     

Measuring Indoor Air Quality of Hookah Lounges

Many states have implemented smoke-free workplace laws to protect employees and customers from exposure to secondhand smoke. However, exemptions in these laws have allowed indoor tobacco smoking in hookah lounges to proliferate in recent years. To describe the amount of secondhand smoke in hookah lounges, we measured the indoor air quality of 10 hookah lounges in Oregon. Air quality measurements ranged from “unhealthy” to “hazardous” according to Environmental Protection Agency standards, indicating a potential health risk for patrons and employees.Hookahs are pipes used to smoke flavored, sweetened tobacco. Hookah tobacco smoke contains tar, carbon monoxide and other toxins found in cigarette smoke, and in a typical hookah session, smokers inhale more than 40 times the volume of smoke produced by a cigarette.1–3 Hookah lounges are businesses that provide an indoor environment for hookah smoking and sell hookah tobacco in dozens of candy and fruit flavors.4 Indoor smoking in hookah lounges can expose employees and customers to secondhand smoke. Many states have implemented comprehensive smoke-free workplace laws that protect employees and patrons from exposure to secondhand smoke.5 Whereas some laws ban all tobacco use, others include exemptions which have allowed hookah lounges to proliferate.6,7Tobacco smoke is a mixture of chemical compounds that are bound to aerosol particles or are free in the gas phase.8 The concentration of particulate matter in the air is a strong indicator of pollution from tobacco smoke. Studies have measured particulate matter from cigarette smoke in bars and restaurants that allow indoor smoking, revealing employees and customers were exposed to hazardous levels of air pollution.9–11 Hookah smoke contains many of the same toxins as cigarette smoke2,3 and has been associated with lung cancer, respiratory illness, low birth weight, and periodontal disease.12 Laboratory studies have measured the chemical components of hookah smoke, and carbon monoxide levels have been measured in patrons exiting a hookah lounge.1–3,13 However, no study to date has described the concentration of particulate matter in the air inside hookah lounges. This study fills a research gap by analyzing the air quality inside hookah lounges in Oregon.     

Cigarette smoke and protein synthesis in the lung

In vivo exposure of lung to cigarette smoke results in depression of protein synthesis by pulmonary tissue. Lungs from sham control rats synthesize protein at a rate of 0.97 ± 0.16 nmole proline/mg DNA/min. Pulmonary protein synthesis during exposure to 45–60 puffs of smoke is inhibited 60–80%. The constituent of smoke which inhibits protein synthesis is not significantly removed by either Cambridge filters which absorb particulate matter or charcoal filters which absorb many gases. Carbon monoxide is not removed by either type of filter. At the level present in cigarette smoke CO produces a protein inhibitory effect comparable to that of smoke. Thus, CO may be a component in cigarette smoke which interfers with pulmonary protein synthesis.     

Respiratory Irritants in Australian Bushfire Smoke: Air Toxics Sampling in a Smoke Chamber and During Prescribed Burns

Bushfire smoke contains an array of organic and inorganic compounds, including respirable and inspirable particles, aldehydes, and carbon monoxide. These compounds have been found to be a health hazard for firefighters in the United States. Despite the high frequency of bushfires in Australia, analyses of bushfire smoke components are scarce. As part of an occupational health study investigating the respiratory health effects of bushfire smoke in firefighters, air toxics sampling was undertaken in a smoke chamber and during prescribed burns. Levels of formaldehyde and acrolein were demonstrated at respectively 60% and 80% of the Short Term Exposure Limit in the smoke chamber. Carbon monoxide levels exceeded the peak limit of 400 ppm significantly. Although concentrations were lower during the prescribed burns, the study shows that Australian bushfire smoke contains air toxics of concern and provides justification for further research into the levels of air toxics measured at bushfires and the associated health impacts.     

Relation between ambient air quality and selected birth defects, seven county study, Texas, 1997-2000

A population-based case-control study investigated the association between maternal exposure to air pollutants, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter <10 microm in aerodynamic diameter during weeks 3-8 of pregnancy and the risk of selected cardiac birth defects and oral clefts in livebirths and fetal deaths between 1997 and 2000 in seven Texas counties. Controls were frequency matched to cases on year of birth, vital status, and maternal county of residence at delivery. Stationary monitoring data were used to estimate air pollution exposure. Logistic regression models adjusted for covariates available in the vital record. When the highest quartile of exposure was compared with the lowest, the authors observed positive associations between carbon monoxide and tetralogy of Fallot (odds ratio = 2.04, 95% confidence interval: 1.26, 3.29), particulate matter <10 microm in aerodynamic diameter and isolated atrial septal defects (odds ratio = 2.27, 95% confidence interval: 1.43, 3.60), and sulfur dioxide and isolated ventricular septal defects (odds ratio = 2.16, 95% confidence interval: 1.51, 3.09). There were inverse associations between carbon monoxide and isolated atrial septal defects and between ozone and isolated ventricular septal defects. Evidence that air pollution exposure influences the risk of oral clefts was limited. Suggestive results support a previously reported finding of an association between ozone exposure and pulmonary artery and valve defects.     

The influence of passive smoking on the cardiovascular system

Cardiovascular effects of tobacco smoke have been studied in passive smokers far less extensively than in active smokers. Under real-life conditions, passive smokers inhale approximately 0.02 to 0.01 of the amount of particulate matter taken up by active smokers. Their nicotine concentration in serum is within a range that is barely distinguishable from the background level. The increase in carboxyhemoglobin rarely exceeds 1%. In healthy subjects heavily exposed to tobacco smoke, no or only slightly acute effects on the cardiovascular system are found. Whether or not passive smoking is likely to aggravate symptoms in patients with advanced coronary heart disease has not yet been unequivocally established and requires further investigation. From a few studies on occupational groups exposed to carbon monoxide (CO) and from experiments with animals chronically treated with CO or nicotine, the conclusion can be drawn that neither CO nor nicotine is likely to play a role in the development and progression of coronary heart disease in those concentrations normally found in passive smokers.     

A screening-level assessment of the health risks of chronic smoke exposure for wildland firefighters

A screening health risk assessment was performed to assess the upper-bound risks of cancer and noncancer adverse health effects among wildland firefighters performing wildfire suppression and prescribed burn management. Of the hundreds of chemicals in wildland fire smoke, we identified 15 substances of potential concern from the standpoints of concentration and toxicology; these included aldehydes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, benzene, and respirable particulate matter. Data defining daily exposures to smoke at prescribed burns and wildfires, potential days of exposure in a year, and career lengths were used to estimate average and reasonable maximum career inhalation exposures to these substances. Of the 15 substances in smoke that were evaluated, only benzene and formaldehyde posed a cancer risk greater than 1 per million, while only acrolein and respirable particulate matter exposures resulted in hazard indices greater than 1.0. The estimated upper-bound cancer risks ranged from 1.4 to 220 excess cancers per million, and noncancer hazard indices ranged from 9 to 360, depending on the exposure group. These values only indicate the likelihood of adverse health effects, not whether they will or will not occur. The risk assessment process narrows the field of substances that deserve further assessment, and the hazards identified by risk assessment generally agree with those identified as a concern in occupational exposure assessments.     

The relationships between ambient air pollutants and childhood asthma and eczema are modified by emotion and conduct problems

PurposeThis study examined the hypothesis that emotion and conduct problems (ECPs) may modify the relationships between ambient air pollutants and childhood asthma and eczema.MethodsIn the cross-sectional study, 4209 French schoolchildren (aged 10–12 years) were investigated between March 1999 and October 2000. Ambient air pollutants exposures were estimated with dispersion modeling. Health outcomes and ECPs were evaluated by validated questionnaires, completed by the parents. Marginal models were used to analyze the relationships of exposures to ambient air pollutants and/or ECPs to asthma phenotypes and current eczema, adjusting for potential confounders.ResultsIn our population, interactions were found between ECPs and exposures to ambient air pollutants (benzene, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter below 10 μm, volatile organic compounds) (P < .20). In addition, ECPs were related to current wheezing (adjusted prevalence odds ratio [aOR], 2.35; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.59–3.47), current doctor-diagnosed asthma (aOR, 1.82; 95% CI, 1.25–2.66), and current eczema (aOR, 2.21; 95% CI, 1.61–3.02). Children with ECPs had 1.17–1.51 times higher aORs for the associations between ambient air pollutants and asthma phenotypes and current eczema than those without ECPs.ConclusionsECPs may modify the relationships between ambient air pollutants and childhood asthma and eczema.     

Health risk assessment of urban suspended particulate matter with special reference to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: a review

Airborne suspended particulate matter is an important marker of air quality. The term 'particulates' includes organic and inorganic matter, nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), several heavy metals, and radionuclides. The health risks from the 'classic' pollutants sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, and particulates have been comprehensively reviewed. Alarming levels of non-classic pollutants like the PAHs have been reported globally. PAHs have been found in placental tissues of women and in umbilical cord blood samples from newborn babies. The damaged DNA in cord blood is a indication of the fate of these pollutants in the environment. Hence, a need exists for a comprehensive investigation of the human health-related aspects of exposure to particulates and PAHs in the urban environment. This paper reviews the literature on PAHs in conjunction with particulate matter on a global perspective.     

Carbon Monoxide: A Hazard to Fire Fighters

Carbon monoxide levels were measured in twenty-five fires in the city of Los Angeles to obtain information about fire fighters exposure to carbon monoxide. Levels as high as 3,000 ppm were observed for some fires. In general, when carbon monoxide levels were significantly elevated (> 100 ppm) the smoke was quite heavy and noxious, but in some cases the smoke was heavy and carbon monoxide levels were minimal. In two-story structures, the highest concentrations of carbon monoxide were found on the second-floor level and were usually (still elevated after the fire had been “knocked down” but was still smoldering. These data show that fire fighters are exposed to levels of carbon monoxide which could be a serious health hazard and may be related to the high incidence of heart disease in fire fighters.     

Emission Factors for Gases and Particle-Bound Substances Produced by Firing Lead-Free Small-Caliber Ammunition

Lead-free ammunition is becoming increasingly popular because of the environmental and human health issues associated with the use of leaded ammunition. However, there is a lack of data on the emissions produced by firing such ammunition. We report emission factors for toxic gases and particle-bound compounds produced by firing lead-free ammunition in a test chamber. Carbon monoxide, ammonia, and hydrogen cyanide levels within the chamber were analysed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, while total suspended particles and respirable particles were determined gravimetrically. The metal content of the particulate emissions was determined and the associated organic compounds were characterized in detail using a method based on thermal desorption coupled to gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. The particulate matter (～30 mg/round) consisted primarily of metals such as Cu, Zn, and Fe along with soot arising from incomplete combustion. Nitrogen-containing heterocyclic aromatic compounds such as carbazole, quinolone, and phenazine were responsible for some of the 25 most significant chromatographic peaks, together with PAHs, diphenylamine, and phthalates. Emission factors were determined for PAHs and oxygenated PAHs; the latter were less abundant in the gun smoke particles than in domestic dust and diesel combustion smoke. This may be due to the oxygen-deficient conditions that occur when the gun is fired. By using an electrical low pressure impactor, it was demonstrated that more than 90% of the particles produced immediately after firing the weapon had diameters of less than 30 nm, and so most of the gun smoke particles belonged to the nanoparticle regime.     

Impact of ambient air pollution on birth weight in Sydney, Australia

Background: Studies in Asia, Europe, and the Americas have provided evidence that ambient air pollution may have an adverse effect on birth weight, although results are not consistent. Methods: Average exposure during pregnancy to five common air pollutants was estimated for births in metropolitan Sydney between 1998 and 2000. The effects of pollutant exposure in the first, second, and third trimesters of pregnancy on risk of "small for gestational age" (SGA), and of pollutant exposure during pregnancy on birth weight were examined. Results: There were 138 056 singleton births in Sydney between 1998 and 2000; 9.7% of babies (13 402) were classified as SGA. Air pollution levels in Sydney were found to be quite low. In linear regression models carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the second and third trimesters had a statistically significant adverse effect on birth weight. For a 1 part per million increase in mean carbon monoxide levels a reduction of 7 (95% CI –5 to 19) to 29 (95% CI 7 to 51) grams in birth weight was estimated. For a 1 part per billion increase in mean nitrogen dioxide levels a reduction of 1 (95% CI 0 to 2) to 34 (95% CI 24 to 43) grams in birth weight was estimated. Particulate matter (diameter less than ten microns) in the second trimester had a small statistically significant adverse effect on birth weight. For a 1 microgram per cubic metre increase in mean particulate matter levels a reduction of 4 grams (95% CI 3 to 6) in birth weight was estimated. Conclusion: These findings of an association between carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter, and reduction in birth weight should be corroborated by further study.     

济南铁路局部分旅客空调列车空气质量检测结果分析

[目的]了解旅客列车空气质量状况,为制定相关措施提供依据。[方法]2007年1月至2010年5月对济南铁路局96列192节空调旅客列车车厢空气进行检测分析。[结果]合计检测96列车192节车厢,各指标合格率,二氧化碳(CO2)、可吸入颗粒物(IP)、细菌总数、甲醛开车前为88.54%、88.54%、90.63%、95.83%,开车后为78.13%、76.56%、75.00%、90.63%(P<0.05);风速、一氧化碳(CO)开车前为95.83%、89.58%,开车后为91.67%、78.13%(P>0.05)。风速、CO、CO2、甲醛冬季为93.14%、88.24%、80.39%、92.16%,夏季为90.00%、78.89%、75.56%、88.89%(P<0.05)。各指标检测值,风速、CO2、COI、P、细菌总数、甲醛均为开车后高于开车前(P<0.05);CO、CO2、甲醛、细菌总数冬季高于夏季(P<0.05);硬座车厢与卧铺车厢,一等座与二等座差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05)。[结论]济南铁路局旅客列车总体状况较好,夏季、开车后污染物浓度较高。     

Bias and confounding in longitudinal measures of exhaled monoxides

The measurement of exhaled nitric oxide and carbon monoxide concentrations is an emerging method of monitoring airway inflammation longitudinally in community-based studies. Inhaled concentrations of these monoxides influence exhaled concentrations. Little is known about the degree to which inhaled concentrations distort temporal trends in, or estimated effects of air pollutants on, exhaled monoxides. We sought to evaluate whether estimated effects of air pollutants on exhaled monoxides are distorted by trends in indoor and outdoor monoxides, and to characterize determinants of exhaled monoxide concentrations among residents of public housing. In a panel study, 42 residents of public housing provided over 1000 exhaled breath samples. Samples from all subjects were analyzed for nitric oxide; samples from 27 of these subjects were also analyzed for carbon monoxide. The effects of indoor and outdoor monoxide concentrations on exhaled concentrations were quantified. Confounding of associations between particulate matter concentrations and exhaled nitric oxide concentrations was explored. Determinants of exhaled monoxide concentrations among public housing residents are similar to those of other populations. Exhaled monoxide concentrations are more strongly associated with indoor than with outdoor monoxide concentrations. Approximately half of the variability in exhaled monoxide concentrations over time can be explained by changes in indoor monoxide concentrations. Indoor monoxide concentrations can markedly distort both temporal trends in exhaled concentrations as well as estimated effects of particulate matter on exhaled monoxides. Prior estimated effects of particulate matter on exhaled nitric oxide concentrations may have been confounded by nitric concentrations indoors at the time of exhaled air collection. To prevent distortions of longitudinal trends in airway inflammation and estimated health effects of air pollutants, inspiratory scrubber use is necessary but not sufficient to remove the confounding effect of indoor monoxides, and analyses should adjust exhaled monoxide concentrations for concentrations indoors.