Use of the Myocardial Performance Index to Assess Right Ventricular Function in Infants with Pulmonary Hypertension

Background This study aimed to measure and compare right ventricular (RV) function in normal infants and those with pulmonary hypertension (PHT) using the myocardial performance index (RV_MPI) and to investigate the relationship between RV function and pulmonary artery pressure. Methods A case-control study measured RV_MPI in 16 infants with PHT (9 of whom had congenital diaphragmatic hernia) and 28 normal control infants. For the PHT infants, 43 paired measures of RV_MPI and pulmonary artery pressure (estimated from tricuspid regurgitation jet velocity) were taken to allow investigation of the relationship between RV_MPI and pulmonary artery pressure. Results The mean RV_MPI for the control infants was 0.24 ± 0.09. The RV_MPI was significantly elevated in the PHT group (0.55 ± 0.17; p < 0.0001), including a subgroup of infants with PHT secondary to congenital diaphragmatic hernia (0.58 ± 0.18; p < 0.0001). The correlation between RV_MPI and pulmonary artery pressure in the infants with PHT (R ² = 0.05; p = 0.17) was poor. Conclusions In infants, RV_MPI allows quantification of right ventricular function and detection of RV dysfunction in PHT. No linear relationship exists between RV_MPI pulmonary artery pressure. Use of RV_MPI in the clinical setting must take into account the global and load-dependent nature of this measure.     

早产儿支气管肺发育不良伴肺动脉高压的临床特征及预后

目的 调查早产儿支气管肺发育不良（BPD）并发肺动脉高压（PH）的临床特征及预后。方法 对191例BPD患儿的临床资料进行回顾性分析。结果 191例BPD患儿中,37例（19.4%）在纠正胎龄36周后并发PH,均发生于中度和重度BPD患儿,中度、重度BPD患儿的PH发生率分别为5.7%（5/87）和47.8%（32/67）。并发PH组患儿的出生胎龄、出生体重明显小于无PH组患儿（P < 0.01）;并发PH组患儿小于胎龄儿（SGA）比例、重度BPD比例、动脉导管未闭（PDA）手术率及新生儿呼吸窘迫综合征、有血流动力学意义的PDA、肺部感染的发生率明显高于无PH组（P < 0.01）;并发PH组患儿的吸氧、气管插管、正压通气时间均明显大于无PH组（P < 0.01）;并发PH组患儿的早产儿视网膜病、宫外生长发育迟缓发生率及病死率均明显高于无PH组,住院时间明显延长（P < 0.01）。37例PH患儿中（6例为轻度PH,14例中度,17例重度）,轻、中度PH患儿均存活,重度PH患儿中15例（88%）死亡。结论 中重度BPD患儿的PH发生率较高,建议定期筛查BPD患儿的肺动脉压力。低出生胎龄和体重、SGA和重度BPD患儿更易并发PH。BPD并发PH患儿的并发症发生率和病死率较高,预后相对不良。     

Early repair of inguinal hernia in preterm infants with oxygen-dependent bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Despite inguinal hernia being both common and problematic in a significant proportion of preterm infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), there has been a reluctance to intervene surgically for fear of exacerbating the underlying lung disease. We report our experience of early operation in 12 consecutive infants with varying degrees of oxygen-dependent BPD and investigate the effect of general anaesthesia and herniotomy on pulmonary function by measuring oxygen requirements prior to and following operation. Two infants who required oxygen in a concentration in excess of 95% failed to improve and died from the pulmonary disease 6 and 8 weeks following their operation. The remaining infants all showed a reduction in mean oxygen requirements in the weeks following operation. We conclude that, in the short term, hernia repair performed under general anaesthesia in infants with BPD of varying severity had no adverse effects on respiratory function, as determined by oxygen requirements. We suggest that in certain infants early repair may have been beneficial-potential mechanisms are explored.     

超未成熟儿的生存状况与预后影响因素分析

目的 探讨胎龄28 周以下超未成熟儿在新生儿重症监护病房（NICU）的存活率、住院期间并发症发生情况及其预后。方法 收集2011 年1 月至2013 年3 月入住NICU 的胎龄结果 90 例患儿平均胎龄26±1 周,出生体重898±165 g,总存活率为57%,病死率9%,放弃率34%。常见并发症包括新生儿呼吸窘迫综合征（RDS）88%、BPD 85%、PDA 69%, ROP 68%,Ⅲ、Ⅳ级IVH 31%;存活早产儿平均住院时间为83±18 d,出院平均体重为2419±300 g。多因素logistic 回归分析发现,肺出血与严重IVH 为死亡或放弃的高危因素,产前使用糖皮质激素为保护因素。结论 目前国内超未成熟儿存活率相比发达国家仍有较大差距;肺出血、严重IVH 为影响预后的重要因素。     

Quantifying pulmonary hypertension in ventilated infants with bronchiolitis: a pilot study

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether previously well infants ventilated for bronchiolitis have sufficiently elevated pulmonary artery pressures (PAP) to warrant a trial of inhaled nitric oxide (iNO) therapy. METHODS: Consecutive infants mechanically ventilated for bronchiolitis were offered Doppler echocardiography between 24 and 72 h after intubation. Patients were divided into those with normal PAP, mild, moderate or severe pulmonary hypertension. Patients with at least moderate pulmonary hypertension (systolic PAP > 30 mmHg and > 50% of systemic systolic arterial pressure) were offered a 60 min trial of iNO therapy at a concentration of 20 ppm and repeat echocardiography. RESULTS: Six infants (four preterm, two term) were studied at a mean corrected age of 13 weeks (4, 24). Respiratory syncytial virus was confirmed on immunofluorescence of nasal secretions in five of six subjects (84%). Echocardiography was performed (mean, 5.5 days) (95%CI 3.8-7.3) after the onset of symptoms. All patients had structurally normal hearts. Four patients had mild pulmonary artery hypertension and two had normal pulmonary artery pressures. None of the patients qualified for iNO therapy. The mean (range) duration of intubation was 14 days (9-19) and the duration of hospitalization was 28 days (14-42). All patients recovered. CONCLUSION: Significant pulmonary hypertension should not be presumed in previously well preterm and term infants ventilated for bronchiolitis.     

Frequency and clinical correlates of radiographic patterns of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very low birth weight infants by term age

Our aim was to study the frequency and clinical correlates of two radiographic patterns of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), the cystic BPD (cBPD) and the leaky lung syndrome (LLS). Radiographic findings of BPD from sixth day of life until term in a cohort of 82 very low birth weight (VLBW) infants were evaluated and scored independently by a neonatologist and a paediatric radiologist. Data on prenatal factors and events during the first hospitalisation were collected prospectively. Forty-four (53.7%) infants showed radiographic evidence of BPD, 19 (23.2%) cBPD and 25 (30.5%) LLS. In multivariate analysis, the best predictors for radiographic BPD were oxygen dependency at 28 days (odds ratio (OR) 10.2 [95% confidence interval (CI) 2.49–41.4]), more than 2 days on ventilator (OR 10.4 [95% CI 1.8–61.5]) and volume expanders in the first 2 h (OR 7.36 [95% CI 1.32–41.2]). During the first week of life, infants with radiographic BPD received less energy per kilogram (p < 0.001) and more daily fluids per kilogram of body weight (p = 0.013). Sixty-two percent of the infants with radiographic BPD were not oxygen dependent at 36 weeks postmenstrual age (PMA). Seventeen (89.5%) of the 19 infants who needed oxygen supplementation at 36 weeks PMA also had abnormal chest X-rays. Conclusions: Radiographic BPD findings appeared to be common in VLBW infants. In addition to the well-known respiratory risk factors (oxygen and ventilator therapy), poor nutrition and excessive fluid administration in early life seem to be significantly associated with radiological findings of lung injury in these patients.     

Pulse-Oximetry Screening to Detect Critical Congenital Heart Disease in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit

The current pulse-oximetry screening (POS) protocol for detection of critical congenital heart defects (CCHDs) is recommended only for newborns in well-infant and intermediate care nurseries, and there is no evidence-based protocol for infants discharged from the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). The objectives of this study were to examine the efficacy of the current screening protocol in a NICU setting and to determine the impact of a unit protocol on the use of POS. Charts of 250 infants previous (group 1) and 250 infants after (group 2) the protocol implementation were reviewed. The results of screening test and preductal and postductal SpO ₂ were recorded for screened infants. A predischarge SpO ₂ value was recorded if screening was not performed. No infant in group 1 had POS. All eligible infants in group 2 received screening and passed. Preductal and postductal oxygen saturations in preterm infants at discharge were similar to saturations in late preterm and term infants. These results show that oxygen saturations at discharge in late preterm and term infants requiring admission to the NICU are similar to infants with no morbidities and that the current POS protocol can be safely used for these infants at discharge from the NICU. This study also confirms that preductal and postductal oxygen saturations at discharge in preterm infants are not different from those in late preterm and term infants. A unit protocol is likely to be more effective than relying on individual providers to ensure that all infants undergo POS for detection of CCHD.     

Cord blood Clara cell protein CC16 predicts the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Clara cell protein (CC16) is an anti-inflammatory protein and a biomarker of pulmonary epithelial cells and alveolocapillary membrane injury in adults. We investigated whether low cord blood concentrations of CC16 are associated with the development of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in preterm infants and the relationship between CC16 and its pro-inflammatory counterpart, the secretory phospholipase A₂ (sPLA₂) enzyme. CC16 concentration, sPLA₂ activity and IL-6 concentration were measured in cord blood plasma from 79 preterm infants (25 controls, 37 infants who developed RDS and 17 infants who developed BPD). After adjustment for gestational age and Apgar score at 5 min, the CC16 concentration was lower in BPD infants than in preterm controls (p<0.01). sPLA₂ activity was similar in all groups and the IL-6 concentrations were increased in both RDS and BPD infants (p<0.01 and p<0.05, respectively, vs. controls). We conclude that low cord blood CC16 concentrations in preterm infants independently predict the development of BPD. Low CC16 levels may reflect early lung injury, which contributes to the severity of RDS and progress towards BPD. Future studies are needed to assess whether the early administration of recombinant human CC16 in preterm infants with low cord blood CC16 prevents the development of BPD. This study was supported by grant 920-03-083 from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO).     

早期或晚期抢救性给予肺表面活性物质对呼吸窘迫综合征早产儿的影响

目的 观察早期或晚期抢救性给予肺表面活性物质(PS)对呼吸窘迫综合征(RDS)早产儿的影响.方法 回顾性分析99例需要机械通气的RDS患儿的临床资料.按照PS的给予时间分为早期组(出生2 h内)48例和晚期组(出生2～12 h)51例,观察2组在机械通气时间、氧疗时间、病死率以及并发症:气漏(肺间质气肿、气胸)、肺出血、支气管肺发育不良(BPD)、坏死性小肠结肠炎(NEC)、PDA、严重脑室内出血(IVH)的发生率方面的变化.结果 早期组和晚期组机械通气时间[(4.14±1.88) d vs (5.84±3.36) d]比较有统计学差异(P＜0.05).2组氧疗时间[(5.84±3.36) d vs (8.05±5.48) d]比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).28 d内早产儿的病死率:早期组为6.25%、晚期组为5.88%,出生12 h内不同时间给予PS对病死率无影响(OR=1.07,95% CI 0.21～5.56,P=1.00).早期组BPD的发生率8.7%,低于晚期组16.0%,但无统计学差异(OR=0.49,95%CI 0.13～1.74,P=0.36).其他并发症如气漏、肺出血、PDA、NEC、严重IVH发生率,2组患儿之间均无明显差异(Pa＞0.05).结论 早期抢救性给予PS能显著减少RDS早产儿的机械通气时间和氧疗时间,降低BPD的发生率.     

NeOProM: Neonatal Oxygenation Prospective Meta-analysis Collaboration study protocol

Background  

The appropriate level of oxygenation for extremely preterm neonates (<28 weeks' gestation) to maximise the greatest chance of survival, without incurring significant morbidity, remains unknown. Infants exposed to lower levels of oxygen (targeting oxygen saturations of <90%) in the first weeks of life are at increased risk of death, cerebral palsy, patent ductus arteriosus, pulmonary vascular resistance and apnoea, whilst those maintained in higher levels of oxygen (targeting oxygen saturations of >90%) have been reported to have greater rates of morbidity including retinopathy of prematurity and chronic lung disease. In order to answer this clinical dilemma reliably, large scale trial evidence is needed.     

Fetal growth restriction and neonatal-pediatric lung diseases: Vascular mechanistic links and therapeutic directions

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is the most common respiratory sequela of prematurity, and infants born with fetal growth restriction (FGR) are disproportionately represented in BPD statistics, as factors which affect somatic growth may also affect pulmonary growth. Effects of in-utero hypoxia underlying FGR on lung parenchymal architecture predisposing to BPD are well documented, but the pulmonary vascular constructs are not well appreciated. Disruption of angiogenesis during critical periods of lung growth impairs alveolarization, contributing to BPD pathogenesis. Pulmonary artery thickness/stiffness has been noted in FGR in the initial postnatal weeks, and also in well-grown infants with established BPD. The lack of waveform cushioning by the major arteries exposes the pulmonary resistance vessels to higher pulsatile stress, thereby accelerating microvascular disease. Reactive oxygen species, increased sympathetic activity and endothelial dysfunction are common mediators in FGR and BPD; each putative targets for prevention and/or therapeutics using interleukin (IL)-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), melatonin or inhibition of renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system. While BPD is the archetypal respiratory disease of infancy, effects of FGR on pulmonary function are long-term, extending well into childhood. This narrative links FGR in very/extremely preterm infants with BPD through the vascular affliction as a mechanistic and potentially, therapeutic pathway. Our objectives were to depict the burden of disease for FGR and BPD amongst preterm infants, portray vascular involvement in the placenta in FGR and BPD cohorts, provide high resolution vascular ultrasound information in both cohorts with a view to address therapeutic relevance, and lastly, link this information with paediatric age-group lung diseases.     

早产儿支气管肺发育不良严重程度的影响因素

目的 探讨早产儿支气管肺发育不良（BPD）严重程度的影响因素。方法 收集2011 年1 月至2013 年12 月住院28 d 以上的明确诊断为BPD 的早产儿110 例,根据临床分度标准分为轻度BPD（52 例）、中度BPD（44 例）、重度BPD（14 例）,探讨不同分度BPD 与出生胎龄、出生体重、窒息、吸氧、母亲妊娠并发症、宫内感染性肺炎及机械通气等因素的关系。结果 不同分度BPD 与出生胎龄、出生体重、母亲产前感染、吸氧浓度>40% 的持续时间、是否机械通气、机械通气参数、机械通气时间、持续气道正压通气（CPAP）时间、是否采用INSURE 模式及是否合并解脲脲原体感染、宫内感染性肺炎及动脉导管未闭有关。有序logistic 回归分析显示机械通气参数中的吸气峰压（OR=1.260,95%CI：1.096~1.448）、机械通气时间（OR=1.010,95%CI：1.005~1.016）为BPD 严重程度的独立危险因素,采用INSURE 模式为保护因素（OR=0.208,95%CI：0.060~0.923）。结论 早产儿BPD 严重程度与多种因素有关;避免低出生体重早产儿出生、缩短应用机械通气时间、防止和减少肺部感染以及尽量采用INSURE 技术是预防BPD 进展的重要措施。     

Oxygen metabolism and oxygenation of the newborn

The premature infant is to some extent protected from hypoxia, however defense against hyperoxia is poorly developed. The optimal assessment of oxygenation is to measure oxygen delivery and extraction. At the bedside PaO₂ and SpO₂ are approximations of oxygenation at the tissue level. After birth asphyxia it is crucial to know whether or not to give oxygen supplementation, when, how much, and for how long. Oxygen saturation targets in the delivery room have been studied, but the optimal targets might still be unknown because factors like gender and delayed cord clamping influence saturation levels. However, SpO₂ > 80% at 5 min of age is associated with favorable long term outcome in preterm babies.Immature infants most often need oxygen supplementation beyond the delivery room. Predefined saturation levels, and narrow alarm limits together with the total oxygen exposure may impact on development of oxygen related diseases like ROP and BPD. Hyperoxia is a strong trigger for genetic and epigenetic changes, contributing to the development of these conditions and perhaps lifelong changes.     

血氧饱和度对超早早产儿预后影响的Meta分析

目的本研究收集了NeOProM团队发表的比较超早早产儿不同血氧饱和度预后的临床文献,并对其进行系统评价,试图寻找适合超早早产儿的血氧饱和度。方法采用STATA 12.0软件,对NeOProM团队发表的文献进行Meta分析,分别比较在胎龄小于28周的超早早产儿中,高血氧饱和度组(91%~95%)和低血氧饱和度组(85%~89%)在出院前或18月龄前病死率、早产儿视网膜病(ROP)、新生儿坏死性小肠结肠炎(NEC)、支气管肺发育不良(BPD)、脑室内出血(IVH)、动脉导管未闭(PDA)发生率等方面内容。结果纳入3篇文献,包括4 919名超早早产儿,其中低血氧饱和度组患儿2 460例,高血氧饱和度组患儿2 459例。系统评价显示,与高血氧饱和度组患儿比较,低血氧饱和度组患儿出院前或18月龄前病死率的风险增加(RR:1.19,95%CI:1.05~1.35);ROP发生率降低(RR:0.73,95%CI:0.53~1.00);NEC发生率增高(RR:1.26,95%CI:1.06~1.49);BPD、IVH及PDA发生率两组比较差异无统计学意义。结论维持低血氧饱和度能降低超早早产儿ROP的发生率,但增加了超早早产儿病死率及NEC的发生率。     

Hepatitis B vaccination in preterm infants

AIM—To investigate the immunogenicity and safety of existing recommendations for hepatitis B vaccination in preterm infants.METHODS—Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine (H-B-VAX II, 5 µg per dose) was given to 85 preterm infants divided into two groups, using two different schedules. Forty four group A infants with birthweights of < 2000 g received three doses at 1, 2, and 7 months of age. Forty one group B infants with birthweights of ?2000 g received three doses at 0, 1, and 6 months of age.RESULTS—After vaccination, 42 infants from group A (95%) and 37 infants from group B (90%) developed protective levels of antibody. The final seropositive rate and the geometric mean concentration of hepatitis B surface antibody between the two groups were not significantly different. The immune response of preterm infants to hepatitis B vaccines was similar to that of term infants in a previous study.CONCLUSIONS—Preterm infants can be given hepatitis B vaccines using one of the above two different schedules, at a cutoff birthweight of 2000 g.     

Respiratory and systemic effects of inhaled dexamethasone on ventilator dependant preterm infants at risk for bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Short term inhaled dexamethasone therapy was evaluated in a double blind placebo controlled trial in 36 ventilator dependent preterm neonates (BW<1500 gm, postnatal age>7 days) who were at risk for bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pulmonary and systemic effects were compared at early (day 3), late (7–10 days) and post (14 days after initiation) phases of therapy. Airflow mechanics improved as demonstrated by a net 101% improvement in pulmonary resistance (a decrease from 139 to 101 cm H₂O/L/s in the dexamethasone treated infants as compared to an increase from 153 to 267 cm H₂O/L/s in the placebo treated infants during the early phase of therapy); this was associated with a 45% increase in inspiratory airflow (1.29±0.43 to 1.87±0.978 L/min; p<0.01), and 37% increase in expiratory airflow. These changes resulted in a significant reduction in the work of breathing such that the mean tidal driving pressure significantly decreased from 13.6 cmH₂O to 9.4 cm H₂O with inhaled steroid administration. Though the brief duration of therapy did not result in cessation of ventilatory support, the level of support was significantly reduced (decreased values of oxygen supplementation, mean airway pressure and oxygenation index and increased ventilatory efficiency index). The inhaled dexamethasone therapy was also associated with systemic absorption of the drug as evidenced by transient but apparently reversible reduction in serum cortisol levels. No systemic side effects of hypertension, hyperglycemia or nosocomial sepsis were observed. These data demonstrate beneficial effects of short term inhaled dexamethasone on the resistive airflow properties of preterm infants at risk for BPD and may provide adjunctive means to facilitate weaning in the ventilator dependent neonates.     

Low breastfeeding continuation to 6 months for very preterm infants: A European multiregional cohort study

Breastfeeding confers multiple benefits for the health and development of very preterm infants, but there is scarce information on the duration of breastfeeding after discharge from the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). We used data from the Effective Perinatal Intensive Care in Europe population‐based cohort of births below 32 weeks of gestation in 11 European countries in 2011–2012 to investigate breastfeeding continuation until 6 months. Clinical and sociodemographic characteristics were collected from obstetric and neonatal medical records as well as parental questionnaires at 2 years of corrected age. Among 3,217 ever‐breastfed infants, 34% were breastfeeding at 6 months of age (range across countries from 25% to 56%); younger and less educated mothers were more likely to stop before 6 months (adjusted relative risk [aRR] <25 years: 0.68, 95% CI [0.53, 0.88], vs. 25–34 years; lower secondary: 0.58, 95% CI [0.45, 0.76] vs. postgraduate education). Multiple birth, bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), and several neonatal transfers reduced the probability of continuation but not low gestational age, fetal growth restriction, congenital anomalies, or severe neonatal morbidities. Among infants breastfeeding at discharge, mixed versus exclusive breast milk feeding at discharge was associated with stopping before 6 months: aRR = 0.60, 95% CI [0.48, 0.74]. Low breastfeeding continuation rates in this high‐risk population call for more support to breastfeeding mothers during and after the neonatal hospitalization, especially for families with low socio‐economic status, multiples, and infants with BPD. Promotion of exclusive breastfeeding in the NICU may constitute a lever for improving breastfeeding continuation after discharge.     

Oxygen therapy in preterm infants: recommendations for practice

Oxygen is one of the most commonly used therapies in neonatology but optimum oxygen saturations for preterm infants have been debated for the past 50 years. The history of oxygen use in this population and multiple clinical trials over the years have shown that liberal oxygen administration is associated with retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) whereas restrictive use results in increased mortality and neurodisability. Pulse oximetry (SpO₂) is a bedside tool to guide the fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO₂) delivered to the patient, and is the current standard of care for continuous monitoring. Although evidence favours targeting predetermined oxygen saturation ranges, achieving this goal consistently in clinical practice has been challenging due to intrinsic pulmonary immaturity, the need for respiratory support therapies and factors relating to the bedside caregivers ability to adjust FiO₂. This review article focuses on the difficulties of titrating oxygen therapy in this vulnerable group and provides recommendations for the best practice based on up to date evidence.     

Alterations in head shape of newborn infants after caesarean section or vaginal delivery.

Alterations of head shape in preterm, small-for-dates, and term normal infants were studied by measuring occipitofrontal circumference (OFC), biparietal diameter (BPD), and occipitofrontal diameter (OFD) at intervals after birth. In 9 preterm infants born by elective caesarean section ther was a 5-2% reduction in BPD and 2-0% reduction in OFC at the age of 7 days. In 18 term infants born by elective caesarean section these changes were 2-4% and 0% respectively in BPD and OFC. In 25 preterm infants born by vertex vaginal delivery there was a significant fall in OFC of 0-7% at the age of 7 days and of 2-4% in BPD, but no significant change in OFD. In 19 small-for-dates infants born vaginally OFC increased 1-0% and OFD 2-7% at 7 days, but BPD decreased 2-5%. After the first week all three measurements increased in both groups of vaginal deliveries. The results show that shrinkage and biparietal flattening of the skull occur during the first week of life in preterm and term infants born by caesarean section and in preterm infants born vaginally. This fact should be borne in mind when comparing the measurements of an infant''s head size with published norms.     

Maternal glucocorticoid therapy and reduced risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Because of substantial clinical and laboratory evidence of the efficacy of glucocorticoids in the treatment of acute pulmonary surfactant deficiency in preterm newborns, we explored the hypothesis that maternal antenatal glucocorticoid receipt is followed by reduced risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). A sample of 223 intubated infants weighing less than 1751 g birth weight provided 76 infants with BPD (defined by both oxygen requirement and compatible chest radiograph) and 147 who had neither BPD characteristic by day 28 of life. When compared to babies who received a complete and timely course of antenatal glucocorticoids, those whose mothers received no glucocorticoids were at prominently increased risk of BPD (odds ratio = 3.0; 95% confidence interval = 1.1, 8.2). Babies whose mothers received a partial course of glucocorticoids were not at increased risk of BPD (odds ratio = 1.3; 95% confidence interval = 0.4, 4.3). Stratification by gender and birth weight at 1 kg showed a benefit of therapy in all strata except that of extremely low birth weight male infants. These data support the hypothesis that maternal antenatal glucocorticoid therapy offers very low birth weight infants protection against BPD.