Fingerprint imaging from the inside of a finger with full-field optical coherence tomography

Imaging below fingertip surface might be a useful alternative to the traditional fingerprint sensing since the internal finger features are more reliable than the external ones. One of the most promising subsurface imaging technique is optical coherence tomography (OCT), which, however, has to acquire 3-D data even when a single en face image is required. This makes OCT inherently slow for en face imaging and produce unnecessary large data sets. Here we demonstrate that full-field optical coherence tomography (FF-OCT) can be used to produce en face images of sweat pores and internal fingerprints, which can be used for the identification purposes.OCIS codes: (110.4500) Optical coherence tomography, (110.3080) Infrared imaging, (170.3880) Medical and biological imaging     

Mirau-type full-field optical coherence tomography with switchable partially spatially coherent illumination modes

A crystalline-fiber-based Mirau-type full-field optical coherence tomography (FF-OCT) system utilizing two partially coherent illumination modes is presented. Using a diode-pumped Ti:sapphire crystalline fiber with a high numerical aperture, spatially-incoherent broadband emission can be generated with high radiance. With two modes of different spatial coherence settings, either deeper penetration depth or higher B-scan rate can be achieved. In a wide-field illumination mode, the system functions like FF-OCT with partially coherent illumination to improve the penetration depth. In a strip-field illumination mode, a compressed field is generated on the sample, and a low-speckle B-scan can be acquired by compounding pixel lines within.     

Simultaneous 4-phase-shifted full-field optical coherence microscopy

A new method is presented for full-field optical coherence tomography imaging, which permits capturing single shot phase sensitive imaging through simultaneous acquisition of four phase-shifted images with a single camera using unpolarized light for object illumination. Our method retains the full dynamic range of the camera by using different areas of a single camera sensor to capture each image. We demonstrate the performance of our method by imaging phantoms and live cultures of fibroblast, cancer, and macrophage cells to achieve 59 dB sensitivity with isotropic resolution down to 1 μm, and displacement sensitivity down to 0.1 nm. Our method can serve as a platform for developing high resolution imaging systems because when used in conjunction with broadband spatially incoherent light sources, the resolution is not affected by optical aberrations or speckle noise.     

In vivo and in situ cellular imaging full-field optical coherence tomography with a rigid endoscopic probe

Full-field OCT has proved to be a powerful high-resolution cellular imaging tool for biological tissues. However the standard bulk full-field OCT setup does not match the size requirements for most in situ and in vivo imaging applications. We adapted its principle into a rigid needle-like probe using two coupled interferometers and incoherent illumination: an external processing interferometer is used for in-depth scanning, while a distal common-path interferometer at the tip of the probe collects light backscattered from the tissue. Our experimental setup achieves an axial and transversal resolution in tissue of 1.8 μm and 3.5 μm respectively, for a sensitivity of -80 dB. We present ex vivo images of human breast tissue, and in vivo images of different areas of human skin, which reveal cellular-level structures.     

All-fiber few-mode optical coherence tomography using a modally-specific photonic lantern

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) was recently performed using a few-mode (FM) fiber to increase contrast or improve resolution using a sequential time-domain demultiplexing scheme isolating the different interferometric signals of the mode-coupled backscattered light. Here, we present an all-fiber FM-OCT system based on a parallel modal demultiplexing scheme exploiting a novel modally-specific photonic lantern (MSPL). The MSPL allows for maximal fringe visibility for each fiber propagation mode in an all-fiber assembly which provides the robustness required for clinical applications. The custom-built MSPL was designed for OCT at 930 nm and is wavelength-independent over the broad OCT spectrum. We further present a comprehensive coupling model for the interpretation of FM-OCT images using the first two propagation modes of a few-mode fiber, validate its predictions, and demonstrate the technique using in vitro microbead phantoms and ex vivo biological samples.     

Diagnosis of Barrett's esophagus using optical coherence tomography

The presence of Barrett's esophagus (BE) is determined by histopathologic analysis of biopsy specimens obtained during upper endoscopy. The accuracy of endoscopy for the diagnosis of BE is surprisingly poor, however. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an optical technology that has shown promise as a powerful new tool to study BE. Of all the methods of optical biopsy discussed in this issue,perhaps OCT comes closest to this goal in that it provides a two dimensional image that correlates with traditional histopathologic excisional biopsy.     

Diagnosis of Barrett's esophagus using optical coherence tomography

OCT is a promising optical technology that permits real-time, high-resolution, cross-sectional imaging of tissue during endoscopy. It has been shown to be a highly sensitive and specific means of identifying the presence of SIM. Preliminary studies suggest that OCT is capable of grading dysplasia occurring within BE and has the potential to assist with the staging of superficial malignancies, particularly squamous cell cancers. In the near future, the capabilities of OCT systems are expected to improve with systems capable of much higher resolution and with Doppler capability becoming available.     

Guidance of aortic ablation using optical coherence tomography

Purpose: There is a significant need for an imaging modality that is capable of providing guidance for intravascular procedures, as current technologies suffer from significant limitations. In particular, laser ablation of in-stent restenosis, revascularization of chronic total occlusions, and pulmonary vein ablation could benefit from guidance. Optical coherence tomography (OCT), a recently introduced technology, is similar to ultrasound except that it measures the back-reflection of infrared light instead of sound. This study examines the ability of OCT to guide vascular laser ablation. Methods: Aorta samples underwent laser ablation using an argon laser at varying power outputs and were monitored with OCT collecting images at 4frames. Samples were compared to the corresponding histopathology. Results: Arterial layers could be differentiated in the images sequences. This allowed correlation of changes in the OCT image with power and duration in addition to histopathology. Conclusions: OCT provides real-time guidance of arterial ablation. At 4 frames, OCT was successfully able to show the microstructural changes in the vessel wall during laser ablation. Since current ablation procedures often injure surrounding tissue, the ability to minimize collateral damage to the adjoining tissue represents a useful advantage of this system. This study suggests a possible role for OCT in the guidance of intravascular procedures.     

Segmentation of Doppler optical coherence tomography signatures using a support-vector machine

When processing Doppler optical coherence tomography images, there is a need to segment the Doppler signatures of the vessels. This can be used for visualization, for finding the center point of the flow areas or to facilitate the quantitative analysis of the vessel flow. We propose the use of a support-vector machine classifier in order to segment the flow. It uses the phase values of the Doppler image as well as texture information. We show that superior results compared to conventional simple threshold-based methods can be achieved in conditions of significant phase noise, which inhibit the use of a simple threshold of the phase values.     

Efficient sweep buffering in swept source optical coherence tomography using a fast optical switch

We describe a novel buffering technique for increasing the A-scan rate of swept source optical coherence tomography (SSOCT) systems employing low duty cycle swept source lasers. This technique differs from previously reported buffering techniques in that it employs a fast optical switch, capable of switching in 60 ns, instead of a fused fiber coupler at the end of the buffering stage, and is therefore appreciably more power efficient. The use of the switch also eliminates patient exposure to light that is not used for imaging that occurs at the end of the laser sweep, thereby increasing the system sensitivity. We also describe how careful management of polarization can remove undesirable artifacts due to polarization mode dispersion. In addition, we demonstrate how numerical compensation techniques can be used to modify the signal from a Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) clock obtained from the original sweep to recalibrate the buffered sweep, thereby reducing the complexity of systems employing lasers with integrated MZI clocks. Combining these methods, we constructed an SSOCT system employing an Axsun technologies laser with a sweep rate of 100kHz and 6dB imaging range of 5.5mm. The sweep rate was doubled with sweep buffering to 200 kHz, and the imaging depth was extended to 9 mm using coherence revival. We demonstrated the feasibility of this system by acquiring images of the anterior segments and retinas of healthy human volunteers.OCIS codes: (170.4500) Optical coherence tomography     

Complex conjugate resolved heterodyne swept source optical coherence tomography using coherence revival

We describe a simple and low-cost technique for resolving the complex conjugate ambiguity in Fourier domain optical coherence tomography (OCT) that is applicable to many swept source OCT (SSOCT) systems. First, we review the principles of coherence revival, wherein an interferometer illuminated by an external cavity tunable laser (ECTL) exhibits interference fringes when the two arms of the interferometer are mismatched by an integer multiple of the laser cavity length. Second, we report observations that the spectral interferogram obtained from SSOCT systems employing certain ECTLs are automatically phase modulated when the arm lengths are mismatched this way. This phase modulation results in a frequency-shifted interferogram, effectively creating an extended-depth heterodyne SSOCT system without the use of acousto-optic or electro-optic modulators. We suggest that this phase modulation may be caused by the ECTL cavity optical pathlength varying slightly over the laser sweep, and support this hypothesis with numerical simulations. We also report on the successful implementation of this technique with two commercial swept source lasers operating at 840nm and 1040nm, with sweep rates of 8kHz and 100kHz respectively. The extended imaging depth afforded by this technique was demonstrated by measuring the sensitivity fall-off profiles of each laser with matched and mismatched interferometer arms. The feasibility of this technique for clinical systems is demonstrated by imaging the ocular anterior segments of healthy human volunteers.     

Improved velocimetry in optical coherence tomography using Bayesian analysis

OCT is a popular cross-sectional microscale imaging modality in medicine and biology. While structural imaging using OCT is a mature technology in many respects, flow and motion estimation using OCT remains an intense area of research. In particular, there is keen interest in maximizing information extraction from the complex-valued OCT signal. Here, we introduce a Bayesian framework into the data workflow in OCT-based velocimetry. We demonstrate that using prior information in this Bayesian framework can significantly improve velocity estimate precision in a correlation-based, model-based framework for Doppler and transverse velocimetry. We show results in calibrated flow phantoms as well as in vivo in a Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) heart. Thus, our work improves upon the current approaches in terms of improved information extraction from the complex-valued OCT signal.OCIS codes: (110.4500) Optical coherence tomography, (000.5490) Probability theory, stochastic processes, and statistics, (110.4153) Motion estimation and optical flow, (170.3880) Medical and biological imaging, (290.5820) Scattering measurements, (030.6140) Speckle     

Cornea characterization using a combined multiphoton microscopy and optical coherence tomography system

We present a multimodal imaging system which combines multiphoton microscopy and optical coherence tomography to visualize the morphological structures, and to quantify the refractive index (RI) and thickness of cornea. The morphological similarities and differences at different corneal layers across various species are identified. In the piscine and human corneas, the stromata exhibit thin fibers that indicate an overall collagen direction. Human corneas display collagen micro-folds which cause increased light attenuation. In the murine, porcine and bovine corneas, the stromata show interwoven collagen patterns. The Bowman’s layer and the Descemet’s membrane are also distinguished in some species. The RI and thicknesses are quantified for the epithelium and the stromal layers respectively, where the epithelium is found to have slightly higher RI than the stroma. The average epithelial and stromal RI are, respectively, 1.371 ± 0.016 and 1.360 ± 0.008 for the murine corneas; 1.502 ± 0.057 and 1.335 ± 0.011 for the piscine corneas; 1.433 ± 0.023 and 1.357 ± 0.013 for the human corneas; 1.476 ± 0.091 and 1.343 ± 0.013 for the porcine corneas; and 1.400 ± 0.007 and 1.376 ± 0.003 for the bovine corneas. The multimodal system can potentially provide a comprehensive characterization of the cornea.OCIS codes: (180.4315) Nonlinear microscopy, (110.4500) Optical coherence tomography     

Real-time speckle variance swept-source optical coherence tomography using a graphics processing unit

Advances in swept source laser technology continues to increase the imaging speed of swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) systems. These fast imaging speeds are ideal for microvascular detection schemes, such as speckle variance (SV), where interframe motion can cause severe imaging artifacts and loss of vascular contrast. However, full utilization of the laser scan speed has been hindered by the computationally intensive signal processing required by SS-OCT and SV calculations. Using a commercial graphics processing unit that has been optimized for parallel data processing, we report a complete high-speed SS-OCT platform capable of real-time data acquisition, processing, display, and saving at 108,000 lines per second. Subpixel image registration of structural images was performed in real-time prior to SV calculations in order to reduce decorrelation from stationary structures induced by the bulk tissue motion. The viability of the system was successfully demonstrated in a high bulk tissue motion scenario of human fingernail root imaging where SV images (512 × 512 pixels, n = 4) were displayed at 54 frames per second.     

Developing a normative database for retinal perfusion using optical coherence tomography angiography

Visualizing and characterizing microvascular abnormalities with optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) has deepened our understanding of ocular diseases, such as glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and age-related macular degeneration. Two types of microvascular defects can be detected by OCTA: focal decrease because of localized absence and collapse of retinal capillaries, which is referred to as the non-perfusion area in OCTA, and diffuse perfusion decrease usually detected by comparing with healthy case-control groups. Wider OCTA allows for insights into peripheral retinal vascularity, but the heterogeneous perfusion distribution from the macula, parapapillary area to periphery hurdles the quantitative assessment. A normative database for OCTA could estimate how much individual’s data deviate from the normal range, and where the deviations locate. Here, we acquired OCTA images using a swept-source OCT system and a 12×12 mm protocol in healthy subjects. We automatically segmented the large blood vessels with U-Net, corrected for anatomical factors such as the relative position of fovea and disc, and segmented the capillaries by a moving window scheme. A total of 195 eyes were included and divided into 4 age groups: < 30 (n=24) years old, 30-49 (n=28) years old, 50-69 (n=109) years old and >69 (n=34) years old. This provides an age-dependent normative database for characterizing retinal perfusion abnormalities in 12×12 mm OCTA images. The usefulness of the normative database was tested on two pathological groups: one with diabetic retinopathy; the other with glaucoma.     

Complete complex conjugate resolved heterodyne swept-source optical coherence tomography using a dispersive optical delay line

Swept-source optical coherence tomography (SSOCT) provides a substantial sensitivity advantage over its time-domain counterpart, but suffers from a reduced imaging depth range due to sensitivity falloff and complex conjugate ambiguity. Heterodyne complex conjugate-resolved SSOCT (HCCR-SSOCT) has been previously demonstrated as a technique to completely resolve the complex conjugate ambiguity, effectively doubling the falloff limited imaging depth, without the reduction in imaging speed associated with other CCR techniques. However, previous implementations of this technique have employed expensive and lossy optical modulators to provide the required differential phase modulation. In this paper, we demonstrate the use of a dispersive optical delay line (D-ODL) as the reference arm of an OCT system to realize HCCR-SSOCT. This technique maintains the existing advantages of HCCR-SSOCT in that it completely resolves the complex conjugate artifact and does not reduce imaging speed, while conferring the additional advantages of being low cost, maintaining system sensitivity and resolution, not requiring any additional signal processing, and working at all wavelengths and imaging speeds. The D-ODL also allows for hardware correction of unbalanced dispersion in the reference and sample arm, adding further flexibility to system design. We demonstrate the technique using an SSOCT system operating at 100kHz with a central wavelength of 1040nm. Falloff measurements performed using a standard OCT configuration and the proposed D-ODL demonstrate a doubling of the effective imaging range with no sensitivity or resolution penalty. Feasibility of the technique for in vivo imaging was demonstrated by imaging the ocular anterior segments of healthy human volunteers.     

Volumetric directional optical coherence tomography

Photoreceptor loss and resultant thinning of the outer nuclear layer (ONL) is an important pathological feature of retinal degenerations and may serve as a useful imaging biomarker for age-related macular degeneration. However, the demarcation between the ONL and the adjacent Henle’s fiber layer (HFL) is difficult to visualize with standard optical coherence tomography (OCT). A dedicated OCT system that can precisely control and continuously and synchronously update the imaging beam entry points during scanning has not been realized yet. In this paper, we introduce a novel imaging technology, Volumetric Directional OCT (VD-OCT), which can dynamically adjust the incident beam on the pupil without manual adjustment during a volumetric OCT scan. We also implement a customized spoke-circular scanning pattern to observe the appearance of HFL with sufficient optical contrast in continuous cross-sectional scans through the entire volume. The application of VD-OCT for retinal imaging to exploit directional reflectivity properties of tissue layers has the potential to allow for early identification of retinal diseases.     

Real-time high-speed volumetric imaging using compressive sampling optical coherence tomography

Volumetric imaging of the Optic Nerve Head (ONH) morphometry with Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) requires dense sampling and relatively long acquisition times. Compressive Sampling (CS) is an emerging technique to reduce volume acquisition time with minimal image degradation by sparsely sampling the object and reconstructing the missing data in software. In this report, we demonstrated real-time CS-OCT for volumetric imaging of the ONH using a 1060nm Swept-Source OCT prototype. We also showed that registration and averaging of CS-recovered volumes enhanced visualization of deep structures of the sclera and lamina cribrosa. This work validates CS-OCT as a means for reducing volume acquisition time and for preserving high-resolution in volume-averaged images. Compressive sampling can be integrated into new and existing OCT systems without changes to the optics, requiring only software changes and post-processing of acquired data.     

Electrokinetic measurement of cartilage using differential phase optical coherence tomography

When an electric field is applied to cartilage, current-generated stress gradients are produced and stress deformation occurs. Since differential phase optical coherence tomography (DP-OCT) is sensitive to tiny surface displacement, these tiny displacements are induced electrokinetically in cartilage and the electric-current-induced stress gradients were measured with DP-OCT. The electrokinetic surface displacement of cartilage was characterized by applying sinusoidal voltages with two amplitudes (5 and 10 V) and different frequencies (1.0, 0.5 and 0.2 Hz). The results show that by application of DP-OCT the surface displacement increased with increasing applied voltage and decreased with increasing excitation frequency. In the electrokinetic response of cartilage, measured optical phase delay between the surface displacement response and excitation waveform varies inversely with the excitation frequency. Since the streaming potential and other electrokinetic effects in cartilage are directly proportional to proteoglycan density, application of an electric field in cartilage combined with DP-OCT measurements may provide a sensitive indicator of cartilage viability.     

Characterization of eosinophilic esophagitis murine models using optical coherence tomography

Pre-clinical studies using murine models are critical for understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying immune-mediated disorders such as Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE). In this study, an optical coherence tomography (OCT) system capable of providing three-dimensional images with axial and transverse resolutions of 5 µm and 10 µm, respectively, was utilized to obtain esophageal images from a murine model of EoE-like disease ex vivo. Structural changes in the esophagus of wild-type (Tslpr^+/+) and mutant (Tslpr^−/−) mice with EoE-like disease were quantitatively evaluated and food impaction sites in the esophagus of diseased mice were monitored using OCT. Here, the capability of OCT as a label-free imaging tool devoid of tissue-processing artifacts to effectively characterize murine EoE-like disease models has been demonstrated.OCIS codes: (110.4500) Optical coherence tomography, (110.6880) Three-dimensional image acquisition, (170.0110) Imaging systems, (170.2680) Gastrointestinal, (170.3880) Medical and biological imaging, (170.6935) Tissue characterization