A new technique for repair of acute or chronic extensor tendon injuries in zone 1

We describe a new surgical technique for the treatment of lacerations of the extensor tendon in zone I, which involves a tenodesis using a length of palmaris longus tendon one-quarter of its width. After exposing the dorsal aspect of the distal interphalangeal joint and harvesting the tendon, a 1.5?mm drill bit is passed through the insertion of the extensor tendon into the distal phalanx where it penetrates through the skin of the pulp of the digit. The palmaris longus tendon is threaded through the drill hole from dorsal to ventral and the ventral end is tied in a simple knot and trimmed. The palmaris longus tendon is then sutured to the extensor tendon close to its insertion, and also at the middle of the middle phalanx. The operation was undertaken on 67 patients: 27 with an acute injury and 40 patients with a chronic mallet deformity. One finger (or the thumb) was involved in each patient. At a mean follow-up of 12 months (6 to 18), 66 patients (98.5%) received excellent or good results according to both the American Society for Surgery of the Hand (ASSH) classification and Miller's classification. Tenodesis using palmaris longus tendon after complete division of an extensor tendon in zone 1 is a reliable form of treatment for isolated acute or chronic ruptures.     

A modified technique of two-staged extensor tendon reconstruction in zones 6–8 in a patient with absent palmaris/plantaris tendons: A case report

IntroductionThe indications for two-staged extensor tendon reconstruction are rare and only 14 previously reported cases were found in the literature. In these cases, silicone rods are inserted in the first stage. Few months later, the palmaris longus / plantaris tendon grafts are usually used to replace the silicone rods.Case reportwe encountered a patient with major defects of the extensor tendons of all fingers extending from the proximal one third of zone 6 to zone 8. The patient had no palmaris or plantaris tendons. We utilized a modified technique of reconstruction using the split flexor carpi radialis as the tendon graft and the flexor carpi ulnaris as the motor tendon. At final follow-up, there was full active extension of the fingers. However, there was limitation of wrist flexion because of the harvesting of both wrist flexors.DiscussionWe describe a modified technique of two-staged extensor tendon reconstruction which may be used in patients with absent palmaris/ plantaris tendons.ConclusionIn patients with absent palmaris/ plantaris tendons and major defects of the extensor tendons of all fingers, the use of split flexor carpi radialis is an adequate alternative for reconstruction and gives a good functional outcome.     

Length and width of the tendinous portion of the palmaris longus: a cadaver study of adult Japanese

We examined 72 forearms of 36 cadavers to measure the length and width of the tendinous portion of the palmaris longus in adult Japanese. The palmaris longus muscles were absent in both arms in 1 cadaver and in a unilateral arm in 1 cadaver. Double palmaris longus muscles were found in 1 arm in another cadaver. Most cadavers had a typical palmaris longus muscle and tendon shape. The mean length and width of the tendons were 124.6 +/- 17.0 and 4.5 +/- 0.7 mm, respectively, in male specimens and 108.3 +/- 16.4 and 4.0 +/- 0.7 mm in female specimens, respectively. The mean lengths of the forearms were 240.0 +/- 12.6 mm in male specimens and 218.8 +/- 14.6 mm in female specimens. There was a statistically significant correlation between the lengths of the palmaris longus tendon and forearm. These results indicate that one can estimate the length of palmaris longus tendons before surgical intervention.     

Is there an association between an absence of palmaris longus tendon and an absence of plantaris tendon?

Summary Tendon grafts are frequently required, particularly in reconstructive hand surgery. Palmaris longus has been the commonest donor tendon but its absence is quoted in the literature to be about 13%. Plantaris is then often sought as a substitute, and although there is less documentation about its incidence of absence, it appears to be not present in about 7% of cadavers. An anatomical study has been undertaken to see if there is a correlation in the absence of one with an absence of the other, as there appears to be no previous literature on the subject. Of 150 cadavers dissected, there was only one case of absence of all four tendons. In another body, one plantaris was absent with both palmaris longus tendons missing. There was a 7.3% incidence of absence of plantaris. Palmaris longus was absent in 16% of cadavers, bilaterally in 7.3% and unilaterally in 8.66% of cases. The conclusion of the study is that if palmaris longus is missing, unilaterally or bilaterally, there is no evidence to show that plantaris will also be absent.     

Tendon transfer for dysfunction of all tendons in leg excepting Achilles tendon and plantaris tendon following irreparable sciatic nerve palsy – A case report

Introduction and importanceIrreparable sciatic nerve palsy is a cause of foot drop and resulting in absent or weak most of the muscles in leg. There may be dysfunctions of all tendons in the leg excepting Achilles tendon and plantaris tendon. The treatment of this atypical neurologic injury has not been defined.Case presentationI reported a case of foot drop following irreparable sciatic nerve palsy in which there was a dysfunction of all tendons in leg excepting Achilles tendon and plantaris tendon. The medial gastrocnemius tendon and plantaris tendon were transferred into the anterior tibialis tendon, the extensor digitorum longus tendon and extensor hallucis longus tendon. The lateral gastrocnemius tendon was transferred into the peroneus brevis. Four months post-operative, he reported no pain and became capable of walking without the assistance of an orthosis or a crutch and without steppage gait.Clinical discussionAnterior transfer of the tibialis posterior tendon was the preferred procedure. If no posterior tibial tendon function was presented, then in order of preference, the extensor hallucis longus, extensor digitorum longus, peroneal, flexor hallucis longus tendon, medial gastrocnemius, lateral gastrocnemius and plantaris tendon would be used.ConclusionThe atypical dysfunction of all tendons in the leg excepting Achilles tendon and plantaris tendon following irreparable sciatic nerve palsy was presented. Tendon transfer using medial gastrocnemius tendon, lateral gastrocnemius tendon and plantaris tendon seemed to be a good choice for treatment of this injury. It allowed reconstruction of a stable, painless, plantigrade foot.Level of evidenceCase report.     

The correction of ulnar claw fingers: a follow-up study comparing the extensor-to-flexor with the palmaris longus 4-tailed tendon transfer in patients with leprosy

PURPOSE: The extensor to flexor 4-tailed tendon transfer (EF4T) and the palmaris longus 4-tailed tendon transfer (PL4T) are 2 surgical procedures used to correct intrinsic paralysis of the hand in leprosy. The EF4T traditionally is the more common procedure and requires the transfer of a wrist extensor muscle. The PL4T requires the transfer of the palmaris longus and morbidity is expected to be lower. A follow-up study was performed to determine whether the clinical outcome of the PL4T is superior to the EF4T procedure in leprosy patients with ulnar claw fingers that are considered mobile before surgery. METHODS: Fifty-five patients presented 65 affected hands, of which 40 hands had the PL4T and 25 had the EF4T procedure. Each hand was assessed before surgery and at follow-up evaluation by predetermined angle measurements, standardized photographs, mechanical function, and patient satisfaction. Each hand was given an overall technical grade according to previously published standards. RESULTS: After an average follow-up period of 33 months there was no statistically significant difference in the technical outcome or patient satisfaction between the 2 tendon transfer procedures. CONCLUSIONS: Whenever the palmaris longus is available it may be considered to be the motor tendon of choice to undertake a many-tailed procedure for claw finger reconstruction in mobile hands paralyzed by leprosy. The palmaris longus should be considered as a possible motor tendon when correcting intrinsic muscle paralysis of the hand.     

微型骨锚联合掌长肌腱片移植治疗陈旧性锤状指畸形

目的:探讨采用微型骨锚和掌长肌腱片移植治疗陈旧性锤状指的临床疗效。方法:自2008年1月至2013年6月,采用微型骨锚和掌长肌腱片移植治疗26例陈旧性锤状指患者,其中男18例,女8例;年龄18～52岁,平均(32.0±1.3)岁;机器绞伤8例,摔伤6例,打架扭伤6例,自发性断裂4例,刀伤2例。16例患者伸肌腱止点无肌腱附丽,10例有0.3～0.5 cm残留肌腱附丽。患者均有手指末节屈曲畸形,背伸活动障碍。术中将远侧指间关节予以克氏针固定于伸直10°～20°位,运用微型骨锚重建伸肌腱止点,取掌长肌腱片移植伸肌腱止点缺损区,4周后拆除克氏针,辅以石膏外固定下行功能锻炼。观察术后并发症情况,并采用Dargan功能评定标准对手指功能进行评价。结果:术后所有患者获随访,时间6～14个月,平均(5.0±0.3)个月。术后发生创口浅表感染2例,皮肤压迫性溃疡2例,关节活动障碍1例,均予以对症治疗后好转;发生创伤性关节炎2例,1例治疗后好转,另1例存在长期慢性疼痛;无内固定松动、断裂和肌腱断裂发生。按照Dargan功能评定标准评价手指功能,优17例,良8例,差1例。结论:采用微型骨锚结合掌长肌腱片治疗陈旧性锤状指畸形,具有手术操作简单,固定牢靠,并发症少,临床疗效肯定等优点,值得临床推广。     

掌长肌腱腱片移植治疗陈旧性锤状指畸形

目的 探讨掌长肌腱腱片移植治疗陈旧性锤状指畸形的疗效.方法 对28例陈旧性锤状指畸形的患者,采用克氏针固定远指间关节、掌长肌腱腱片移植加强修复伸肌止点的手术方法.术后6周拔出克氏针,随访时按照Patel评价体系评定.结果 术后25例获得随访,3例失访,随访时间为3～15个月,平均10个月.优9例,良13例,可2例,差1例;优良率为88%.结论 采用掌长肌腱腱片移植加强修复指伸肌腱断端,可明显纠正畸形,并获得良好的关节活动度,是治疗陈旧性锤状指畸形较有效的方法.     

掌长肌腱腱片移植治疗陈旧性锤状指畸形

目的 探讨掌长肌腱腱片移植治疗陈旧性锤状指畸形的疗效.方法 对28例陈旧性锤状指畸形的患者,采用克氏针固定远指间关节、掌长肌腱腱片移植加强修复伸肌止点的手术方法.术后6周拔出克氏针,随访时按照Patel评价体系评定.结果 术后25例获得随访,3例失访,随访时间为3～15个月,平均10个月.优9例,良13例,可2例,差1例;优良率为88%.结论 采用掌长肌腱腱片移植加强修复指伸肌腱断端,可明显纠正畸形,并获得良好的关节活动度,是治疗陈旧性锤状指畸形较有效的方法.     

Rupture of the extensor pollicis longus tendon after wrist trauma

In the period of 1976 to 1997 our clinic treated 33 patients after Colles fracture with ruptured extensor pollicis longus tendon. The occurrence of functional loss was observed after the trauma in 3 to 9 weeks. In 30 cases the surgical treatment of extensor indicis proprius tendon, in 2 cases a direct suture of the ruptured tendon was performed as a primary repair and in one patient a palmaris longus interposition was utilised.     

Anatomical variations of the palmaris longus muscle including its relation to the median nerve – a proposal for a new classification

Background

The palmaris longus (PL) muscle is characterised by high morphological diversity, and its tendon crosses the median nerve (MN) at different levels. Due to the fact that the palmaris longus tendon is routinely harvested for reconstruction of other tendons, knowledge of its morphological variations is clinically important. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to suggest a new morphological classification of the PL muscle and characterise the relationship of its tendon to the median nerve.

Methods

Standard dissection was performed on 80 randomised and isolated upper limbs (40 left and 40 right) fixed in a 10% formalin solution. Measurements of muscle belly and tendon were obtained. The course and location of tendon insertion, as well as its relationship to the median nerve, were noted.

Results

The palmaris longus muscle was present in 92.5% of specimens. Three types of palmaris longus muscle were identified based on the morphology of its insertion (types I-III) and these were further subdivided into three subgroups (A-C) according to the ratio of the length of the muscle belly and its tendon. The most frequent was type I (78.8%), where the tendon attached to the palmar aponeurosis, and subtype B, where the tendon-to-belly ratio was 1–1.5 (41.1%). The mean distance from the interstyloid line to the crossing between the median nerve and the palmaris longus tendon was 31.6 mm. In addition, two types of palmaris longus were described.

Conclusion

The presented classification of palmaris longus muscle types allows a better characterization of its diversity and may be useful in planning tendon grafting.

     

Flexor tendon-tendon sheath interaction after tendon grafting: a biomechanical study in a human model in vitro.

A human cadaver tendon sheath model was used to study the differences in excursion resistance of tendons that might be considered as sources of clinical tendon grafts. The flexor digitorum profundus and superficialis tendons, the extensor indicis proprius tendon used in its normal proximal-distal orientation, the extensor indicis proprius tendon used in a reversed distal-proximal orientation, and the palmaris longus tendon were studied in 7 fingers. The intrasynovial tendons (the flexor digitorum profundus and superficialis tendons and the reversed extensor indicis proprius tendon) produced less excursion resistance (p < .05) than the extrasynovial tendons (the normally oriented extensor indicis proprius tendon and the palmaris longus tendon). In contrast to studies measuring resistance against a single pulley, resistance within a complete tendon sheath may be affected by contact with other structures, particularly in joint extension.     

微型骨锚联合掌长肌腱腱片移植治疗陈旧性锤状指畸形

目的探讨微型骨锚联合掌长肌腱腱片移植治疗陈旧性锤状指畸形的疗效。方法本组共16例陈旧性锤状指畸形患者,均采用微型锚钉联合掌长肌腱腱片重建伸肌腱止点的方法进行治疗,术后6周开始功能锻炼。定期随访,并进行功能评定。结果随访时间为4～10个月。本组患者术后未出现伤口感染或骨锚植入后异物反应,X线检查未见骨锚松动及脱落。术后远侧指间关节稳定性良好。按Dargan方法评定主动活动范围,优12例,良2例,可l例,差l例。结论微型骨锚联合掌长肌腱腱片移植治疗陈旧性锤状指畸形,手术简便,可明显纠正畸形,效果肯定,值得推广应用。     

Postfracture extensor pollicis longus tenosynovitis and tendon rupture: a scientific study and personal series

Rupture of the extensor pollicis longus (EPL) tendon after a distal radius fracture is an uncommon event; the incidence is 3%,according to a review of treatment of 200 consecutive patients with Colles fractures. Diagnosis is based on persistent dorsal wrist pain and a positive retroflexion sign. Recommended treatments in the prerupture setting include a third dorsal compartment release with or without an extensor retinacular patch graft. Also recommended are a palmaris longus graft in the acute rupture setting and a transfer from the extensor indicis proprius to the EPL tendon in the subacute or chronic setting. Results of all treatments seem to be clinically satisfactory.     

Median nerve as free tendon graft

Four patients are described, all of whom had tendon injuries in which the median nerve was used as a free tendon graft. Three cases involved the repair of a flexor tendon injury, and one the repair of an extensor tendon. In all cases, reconstruction of the median nerve was performed with a free sural nerve graft. The difficulty was that the palmaris longus tendon was missing in all cases. The importance of preoperative clinical testing for the presence of the palmaris longus tendon is emphasized.     

Does the absence of the palmaris longus affect grip and pinch strength?

The palmaris longus tendon is the most frequently harvested tendon for reconstructive plastic and hand surgical procedures. A question patients often ask is whether loss of the palmaris longus will result in any functional deficit. In order to answer this question, the presence or absence of the palmaris longus muscle was clinically determined in 418 normal Asian subjects. All subjects also had their grip and pinch strengths measured. No statistically significant difference was seen in the grip or pinch strength measurements between subjects who had a palmaris longus tendon and those who did not. This study demonstrates that absence of the palmaris longus is not associated with a decrease of grip or pinch strength.     

Anatomical study of the ankle with view to the anterior arthroscopic portals

This article evaluates the risk of interference with the neurovascular structures in the four anterior ankle arthroscopic portals, described on each side of the extensor tendons: anteromedial, medial midline, anterocentral and anterolateral. Complications after ankle arthroscopies have been described in up to 17%, most being neurovascular. To quantify the neurovascular risks we dissected 68 cadaveric feet and evaluated the correlations between tendons, vessels and nerves. The mean distance between tibialis anterior and extensor hallucis longus and between extensor hallucis longus and extensor digitorum longus is 4 mm, but in 10-20% these tendons are in apposition or are overlapped. The tibialis anterior vascular bundle was absent in 11.8%, was located between the tibialis anterior and the extensor hallucis longus in 3% and between the extensor hallucis longus and the extensor digitorum longus in 64.7%. A peroneal vascular bundle or branches of the tibialis anterior vascular bundle were located lateral to the extensor digitorum longus/peroneus tertius tendon in 88.2%. Transverse vascular branches were identified in 41.2% over the medial side of the joint line and in 52.9% over the lateral side. The deep peroneal nerve was located between the extensor hallucis longus and the extensor digitorum longus tendons in 58.8%. The superficial peroneal nerve had branches located between the tibialis anterior and the extensor hallucis longus tendons in 2.9%, between the extensor hallucis longus and the extensor digitorum longus tendons in 23.5% and lateral to the extensor digitorum longus/peroneus tertius tendon in 32.4%. These results show that the anteromedial and medial midline portals are the safest. The anterolateral portal should be noted not only for the risks to the superficial peroneal nerve, but also to the peroneal vessels.     

Results of Long-Term Follow-Up Observations of Blepharoptosis Correction Using the Palmaris Longus Tendon

BACKGROUND: The frontalis sling procedure is a useful approach for correcting severe blepharoptosis. However, blepharoptosis often recurs after corrective surgery using the tensor fascia lata. Good results without recurrence after a modified Fox method were obtained using the palmaris longus tendon. This study examined the safety and validity of the surgical method using the palmaris longus tendon through long-term follow-up observations. METHODS: To reduce the rate of recurrence, the highest point on the pentagon of the Fox method was fixed to the frontalis fascia and frontalis muscle. It was fixed once again to the area 1 cm above the highest point. This approach remarkably reduces the incidence of recurrence by fixing the pentagon of the Fox method not only to the palmaris longus tendon but also to the frontalis fascia and again to the frontalis muscle. A modified Fox method using the palmaris longus tendon was used to treat 16 eyelids of 10 patients. A senior surgeon performed the procedure in all cases under local anesthesia. RESULTS: The mean follow-up period was 51 months (range = 18-86 months). There was no case of blepharoptosis recurrence and a good field of view was secured after surgery. Long-term follow-up revealed that the visual field had been well secured with a mean MRD1 of 3.1 mm. The eyelids were well maintained without any postoperative adverse reaction such as exposure keratitis. CONCLUSION: The palmaris longus tendon as useful donor material does not lead to recurrence of blepharoptosis, which is often encountered when the tensor fascia lata is used. The modified Fox method using the palmaris longus tendon can be an effective and valid surgical approach that produces both immediate and long-term results.     

The treatment of Doyle types II and III mallet finger with the encircling fixation of a transplanted palmaris longus tendon

ObjectiveThis study aimed to investigate the clinical effect of the encircling fixation of a transplanted palmaris longus tendon in the treatment of Doyle types II and III mallet finger.MethodsThere were 115 cases of mallet finger deformity with Zone 1 extensor tendon rupture and defect. After debridement by first intention, the tendon bundles of the palmaris longus tendon were used to pass through the subcutaneous tunnel on the volar side of the base of distal phalanx, forming an encircling binding, crossing on the dorsal side. The tail of the tendon was then overlapped with the proximal extensor tendon and sutured. The finger extension position was fixed with plaster for four weeks. If the skin defect could not be closed directly, depending on the size of the skin defect, either a local turndown flap or a pedicled flap was used to cover the wound.ResultsThe patients were followed up for 3–12 months after the operation. According to Total Active Motion criteria, the clinical effect was excellent in 89 cases, good in 16 cases, acceptable in 7 cases, poor in 2 cases and inferior in 1 case. Conclusion: The treatment of Doyle types II and type III mallet finger with the encircling fixation of a transplanted palmaris longus tendon is simple and effective, with a low recurrence rate, few complications, and satisfactory results.     

Trapezial space height measurement after trapeziectomy: a comparison of the use of standard and stress radiographs

PURPOSE: To assess whether the behavior of the trapezial space under stress after excision of the trapezium and insertion of a K-wire to hold the thumb metacarpal base away from the distal pole of the scaphoid for 4 weeks is improved by either palmaris longus interposition or ligament reconstruction (LRTI). METHODS: The trapezial space height and trapezial space ratios were assessed on 50 pairs of standard and stress views obtained 1 year after trapeziectomy. Seventeen of the 50 thumbs had simple trapeziectomy, 15 had trapeziectomy plus LRTI and 18 had trapeziectomy with palmaris longus tendon interposition. The reproducibility of these measurements also was assessed. RESULTS: The 95% limits of agreement for intra- and interobserver differences in the measurement of the trapezial space height were -1 to +1 mm and -2 to +1 mm, respectively. The mean differences between the trapezial heights on the standard and stress radiographs were 1.6 mm (SD, 2.5) for simple trapeziectomy, 1.2 mm (SD, 3.1) for trapeziectomy and LRTI, and 1.2 mm (SD, 2.4) for trapeziectomy with interposition of palmaris longus. The differences between the trapezial space height and trapezial space ratios on the standard and stress radiographs after the 3 different surgeries were not notably different. CONCLUSIONS: Neither the creation of a suspensory ligament nor palmaris longus tendon interposition, as opposed to the isolated placement of a K-wire across the trapezial void for 4 weeks, alters the behavior of the trapezial space under stress at the 1-year follow-up examination. It is thus appropriate to use standard radiographs at the 1-year follow-up examination to assess and compare the trapezial space after these different techniques of trapeziectomy.