重视老年慢性肾脏病的诊治与预防

老年人是慢性肾脏病(CKD)的高危人群,并且老年人已成为新透析的主要人群,因此老年人是中国今后CKD防治的重点。目前老年CKD的诊治还存在不少问题：老年CKD诊断标准尚未统一;老年CKD并发症的治疗靶目标值也未确定;老年非透析CKD的临床防治策略制定相对复杂;老年终末期肾脏疾病(ESRD)的治疗手段需要综合权衡。因此,治疗方案需要多方人员参与、综合权衡制定。老年CKD的防治,要特别强调以病人为中心、而非以疾病为导向的个体化综合管理。     

Specific Bone and Mineral Disorders in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease

Bone lesions, collectively known as renal osteodystrophy (ROD), are a common complication of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Besides osteitis fibrosa and mixed lesions, other bone and mineral disorders such as adynamic bone disease, osteomalacia, osteoporosis, dialysis-related amyloidosis, and calcific uremic arteriolopathy are increasingly recognized in patients with CKD. Although bone lesions usually begin early in the course of CKD and are progressive, symptoms and signs such as bone pain and fractures may not occur until the patient is already on maintenance dialysis. More importantly, these disorders are associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease and mortality in patients with CKD. The term ROD does not reflect the full spectrum of bone pathology or clinical manifestations of bone and mineral disorders in patients with CKD. Accordingly, the National Kidney Foundation and, more recently the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes, now consider ROD to represent only one measure of the skeletal component of the broader syndrome of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorders in which abnormalities in bone and mineral metabolism or extraskeletal calcification are observed. In this review, we will discuss, in detail, the epidemiology, pathogenesis, histopathology, clinical manifestation, diagnosis, and treatment of these disorders.     

慢性肾脏疾病的心血管并发症及其处理

心血管疾病是慢性肾脏疾病的重要并发症及透析患者的重要死亡原因,重视心血管疾病预防和治疗对改善慢性肾脏疾病患者的预后具有极重要的意义。现就近年来慢性肾脏疾病并发心血管疾病的流行病学情况、临床预后及相关处理等问题作一简要综述。     

Chronic Kidney Disease as a Coronary Artery Disease Risk Equivalent

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is associated with accelerated cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk and a higher CVD event rate. Substantial data from prospective cohort studies support the concept that dialysis patients as well as those with advanced stage (stages 3–5) CKD are associated with an increased risk for all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. The risk for coronary artery disease (CAD) increases exponentially with declining kidney function, i.e., stage 3 or higher CKD. Indeed, CVD accounts for more than 50 % of deaths in patients with CKD. CKD patients are more likely to die of CVD than to progress to end stage kidney disease. This increase in CV risk is commonly attributed to co-existence of numerous traditional and nontraditional risk factors for the development of CVD that frequently accompany reduced kidney function. Therefore, CKD itself is now considered an independent CVD risk factor and a coronary artery disease (CAD) equivalent for all-cause mortality. All patients at risk for CAD should be evaluated for kidney disease. Treatments used for management of established CAD might have similar benefits for patients with concomitant CKD.     

Symptom Burden,Depression, and Quality of Life in Chronic and End-Stage Kidney Disease

Background and objectives: While many patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) have impaired physical and psychologic well-being, less is known about these health domains in patients with advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD). The authors sought to compare symptoms, depression, and quality of life in patients with ESRD and those with CKD.Design, setting, participants, & measurements: Patients with ESRD and subjects with advanced CKD were enrolled. Patients’ symptoms, depression, and quality of life were assessed using the Dialysis Symptom Index (DSI), Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), and Short Form 36 (SF-36), respectively, and these health domains were compared between patient groups.Results: Ninety patients with ESRD and 87 with CKD were enrolled. There were no differences in the overall number of symptoms or in the total DSI symptom-severity score. Median scores on the PHQ-9 were similar, as was the proportion of patients with PHQ-9 scores >9. SF-36 Physical Component Summary scores were comparable, as were SF-36 Mental Component Summary scores.Conclusions: The burden of symptoms, prevalence of depression, and low quality of life are comparable in patients with ESRD and advanced CKD. Given the widely recognized impairments in these domains in ESRD, findings of this study underscore the substantial decrements in the physical and psychologic well-being of patients with CKD.Patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) receiving maintenance dialysis suffer from a multitude of physical and emotional symptoms, exhibit a particularly high prevalence of depression, and experience substantial impairments in quality of life (QOL) (1–11). Symptoms including fatigue, pain, muscle cramps, difficulty with sleep, and sexual dysfunction affect half or more of patients receiving chronic dialysis (12–15). Moreover, as many as 25% of patients suffer from depression, which in longitudinal analysis has been associated with an increased risk of death (16–18). This high burden of symptoms and depression likely contributes to the marked impairments in QOL in this population (19).While there is little doubt that patients dependent on maintenance dialysis experience reduced physical and psychologic well-being, considerably less is known about these health-related domains in patients with advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD) who do not require chronic renal replacement therapy. Understanding the degree to which symptoms, depression, and impaired QOL affect patients with advanced CKD is important for two reasons. First, while ESRD affects approximately 500,000 patients in the United States, CKD is present in as many as 20 million Americans and this number is likely to increase with the growing burden of diabetes mellitus and hypertension (20). Understanding the degree to which symptoms and depression affect this large and growing population may help facilitate the implementation of symptom-alleviating therapies that favorably impact QOL. Second, characterizing the burden of symptoms and depression and impairments in QOL in those not yet dependent on renal replacement therapy will improve patient and provider understanding of how such health-related domains may change when advanced CKD progresses to ESRD. We undertook the current study to compare symptom burden, depression, and QOL in patients with ESRD receiving chronic dialysis and patients with advanced CKD not dependent on dialysis.     

Kidney Health for Everyone Everywhere—From Prevention to Detection and Equitable Access to Care

The global burden of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is increasing with a projection of becoming the fifth leading cause of years of life lost globally by 2040. CKD is a major cause of catastrophic health expenditure. The costs of dialysis and transplantation consume up to 3% of the entire annual healthcare budget in high‐income countries. Crucially, however, both the onset and progression of CKD is potentially preventable. In 2020, the World Kidney Day campaign highlights the importance of preventive interventions—be it primary, i.e. to prevent de novo CKD, or secondary or tertiary, i.e. prevention of worsening early CKD or progression of more advanced CKD to end‐stage kidney disease, respectively. Primary prevention should focus on the modification of CKD risk factors and address the structural abnormalities of the kidney and urinary tracts, and exposure to environmental risk factors and nephrotoxins. In persons with pre‐existing kidney disease, secondary prevention, including blood pressure optimization, glycemic control and avoiding high‐protein high‐sodium diet should be the main goal of education and clinical interventions. In patients with moderate to advanced CKD, the management of comorbidities such as uremia and cardiovascular disease along with low‐protein diet are among the recommended preventative interventions to avoid or delay dialysis or kidney transplantation. Whereas national policies and strategies for noncommunicable diseases may exist in a country, specific policies directed toward education and awareness about CKD screening, prevention and treatment are often lacking. There is an urgent need to increase awareness for preventive measures throughout populations, professionals and policy makers.     

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??Abstract??The elderly CKD patients constitute the fast-growing population reaching end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and commencing dialysis therapy.Peritoneal dialysis (PD) has many advantages on elderly patients such as home-based therapy??relatively stable hemodynamics??etc.However??elderly patients have multiple complicated disorders and are more susceptible to malnutrition??which are very important prognostic factors for survival of patients.A high burden of physical and cognitive impairment in elderly patients may increase the risk of peritonitis and technique failure.Intensive care should be taken to cope with the comorbidities and malnutrition in the elderly.Offering assisted peritoneal dialysis to unstable or frail elderly ESRD patients will help to perform the procedure at home and improve the technique survival.All these strategies for the care of elderly PD patients will result in better survival and quality of life.     

老年慢性肾脏病临床评估与管理

规范合理的评估及管理模式对延缓老年慢性肾脏病(CKD)进展、改善患者生存质量具有重要意义。由于老年CKD患者本身的特殊性,目前临床上在对老年人肾功能的准确定义、分期、评价系统及并发症和合并症的防治方面均存在某些尚需解决或研究探讨的问题。文章从最新指南到临床实践看老年CKD的诊断、预后评估及常见并发症的管理,旨在一定程度上减少老年CKD的过度诊断,同时更好地预测老年CKD患者进展至终末期肾脏疾病(ESRD)或合并其他疾病的风险,以便对其尽早实施必要的临床干预措施。     

Management of Heart Failure Patient with CKD

CKD is common in patients with heart failure, associated with high mortality and morbidity, which is even higher in people undergoing long-term dialysis. Despite increasing use of evidence-based drug and device therapy in patients with heart failure in the general population, patients with CKD have not benefitted. This review discusses prevalence and evidence of kidney replacement, device, and drug therapies for heart failure in CKD. Evidence for treatment with β-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitors, and sodium-glucose cotransporter inhibitors in mild-to-moderate CKD has emerged from general population studies in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). β-Blockers have been shown to improve outcomes in patients with HFrEF in all stages of CKD, including patients on dialysis. However, studies of HFrEF selected patients with creatinine <2.5 mg/dl for ACE inhibitors, <3.0 mg/dl for angiotensin-receptor blockers, and <2.5 mg/dl for mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, excluding patients with severe CKD. Angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor therapy was successfully used in randomized trials in patients with eGFR as low as 20 ml/min per 1.73 m². Hence, the benefits of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis inhibitor therapy in patients with mild-to-moderate CKD have been demonstrated, yet such therapy is not used in all suitable patients because of fear of hyperkalemia and worsening kidney function. Sodium-glucose cotransporter inhibitor therapy improved mortality and hospitalization in patients with HFrEF and CKD stages 3 and 4 (eGFR>20 ml/min per 1.73 m²). High-dose and combination diuretic therapy, often necessary, may be complicated with worsening kidney function and electrolyte imbalances, but has been used successfully in patients with CKD stages 3 and 4. Intravenous iron improved symptoms in patients with heart failure and CKD stage 3; and high-dose iron reduced heart failure hospitalizations by 44% in patients on dialysis. Cardiac resynchronization therapy reduced death and hospitalizations in patients with heart failure and CKD stage 3. Peritoneal dialysis in patients with symptomatic fluid overload improved symptoms and prevented hospital admissions. Evidence suggests that combined cardiology-nephrology clinics may help improve management of patients with HFrEF and CKD. A multidisciplinary approach may be necessary for implementation of evidence-based therapy.     

Dialyse und ethische Probleme beim sehr alten Patienten

Background

Over the course of one decade the prevalence of elderly patients on dialysis therapy has doubled. Currently the age group over 75 years old shows the highest incidence in patients starting dialysis treatment. This paper focuses on the treatment and ethical issues resulting from the different treatment options for elderly patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD).

Methods

A selective literature search was carried out with reference to the elderly, CKD, dialysis, palliative care and ethics.

Results

Both conservative and active forms of treatment are options for elderly CKD patients. Selection of treatment is based on the extent of coincidental comorbidities in this group. Treatment should focus on the quality of life rather than prolongation of life. In the highest comorbidity group the life expectancy is similar for conservative and active (dialysis) treatment. Palliative treatment should be part of the end of life care for the elderly with CKD. The ethical issues of this aspect will be discussed.

Conclusion

Care for the elderly CKD population must focus on the quality of life rather than extending life by treatment. Indications for starting dialysis are strongly dependent on comorbidities which define survival in this patient group. Both conservative and active forms of treatment must include the conception of palliative care. To integrate this concept into daily nephrological treatment is strongly recommended.     

Kidney Health for Everyone Everywhere – From prevention to detection and equitable access to care

The global burden of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is rapidly increasing with a projection of becoming the 5th most common cause of years of life lost globally by 2040. Aggravatingly, CKD is a major cause of catastrophic health expenditure. The costs of dialysis and transplantation consume up to 3% of the annual healthcare budget in high-income countries. Crucially, however, the onset and progression of CKD is often preventable. In 2020, the World Kidney Day campaign highlights the importance of preventive interventions – be it primary, secondary or tertiary. This complementing article focuses on outlining and analyzing measures that can be implemented in every country to promote and advance CKD prevention. Primary prevention of kidney disease should focus on the modification of risk factors and addressing structural abnormalities of the kidney and urinary tracts, as well as exposure to environmental risk factors and nephrotoxins. In persons with pre-existing kidney disease, secondary prevention, including blood pressure optimization and glycemic control, should be the main goal of education and clinical interventions. In patients with advanced CKD, management of co-morbidities such as uremia and cardiovascular disease is a highly recommended preventative intervention to avoid or delay dialysis or kidney transplantation. Political efforts are needed to proliferate the preventive approach. While national policies and strategies for non-communicable diseases might be present in a country, specific policies directed toward education and awareness about CKD screening, management and treatment are often lacking. Hence, there is an urgent need to increase the awareness of the importance of preventive measures throughout populations, professionals and policy makers.     

Frailty in chronic kidney disease: challenges in nephrology practice. A review of current literature

Frailty is a multidimensional clinical syndrome characterised by low physical activity, reduced strength, accumulation of multi-organ deficits, decreased physiological reserve and vulnerability to stressors. Frailty pathogenesis and ‘inflammageing’ is augmented by uraemia, leading to a high prevalence of frailty potentially contributing to adverse outcomes in patients with advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD), including end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). The presence of frailty is a stronger predictor of CKD outcomes than estimated glomerular filtration rate and more aligned with dialysis outcomes than age. Frailty assessment should form part of routine assessment of patients with CKD and inform key medical transitions. Frailty screening and interventions in CKD/ESKD should be a research priority.     

Nuevos mecanismos implicados en el desarrollo de la enfermedad cardiovascular en la enfermedad renal crónica

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a pathology with a high worldwide incidence and an upward trend affecting the elderly. When CKD is very advanced, the use of renal replacement therapies is required to prolong its life (dialysis or kidney transplantation). Although dialysis improves many complications of CKD, the disease does not reverse completely. These patients present an increase in oxidative stress, chronic inflammation and the release of extracellular vesicles (EVs), which cause endothelial damage and the development of different cardiovascular diseases (CVD). CKD patients develop premature diseases associated with advanced age, such as CVD. EVs play an essential role in developing CVD in patients with CKD since their number increases in plasma and their content is modified. The EVs of patients with CKD cause endothelial dysfunction, senescence and vascular calcification. In addition, miRNAs free or transported in EVs together with other components carried in these EVs promote endothelial dysfunction, thrombotic and vascular calcification in CKD, among other effects. This review describes the classic factors and focuses on the role of new mechanisms involved in the development of CVD associated with CKD, emphasizing the role of EVs in the development of cardiovascular pathologies in the context of CKD. Moreover, the review summarized the EVs’ role as diagnostic and therapeutic tools, acting on EV release or content to avoid the development of CVD in CKD patients.     

Sleep and Activity in Chronic Kidney Disease: A Longitudinal Study

Summary

Background and objectives

Commonly sleep is disrupted and physical activity is restricted among patients with CKD and those on long-term dialysis. However, few studies have assessed patients longitudinally.

Design, setting, participants, & measurements

We compared the prevalence of sleep disturbances measured both subjectively using a questionnaire and objectively using actimetry among patients with CKD (n = 145), those on hemodialysis (n = 116), and people without kidney disease (n = 19). Activity level during the day was measured using actimetry, and patients were then followed for up to 2 years.

Results

Compared with people without kidney disease, patients with CKD not on dialysis had disruption of sleep that was independent of several risk factors. However, disrupted sleep was correlated with neither estimated GFR in cross-sectional nor longitudinal assessment. Those on hemodialysis had sleep disruption that was of much greater severity than that found among those with CKD not on dialysis. Furthermore, missing or shortening the prescribed duration of dialysis was associated with greater severity of sleep disturbance in cross-sectional but not in longitudinal assessment. Day-time activity declined both in duration and intensity from controls to CKD to hemodialysis.

Conclusions

The loss of kidney function is related to both reduced duration and intensity of day time physical activity. Although patients with CKD have disrupted sleep, this is independent of estimated GFR. However, compared with those with CKD, dialysis patients have more severely disrupted sleep; this is related to missing dialysis. Thus, shortening patients'' dialysis may reduce their sleep.     

Concepts and Controversies: Lipid Management in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) remains an important contributor of morbidity and mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). CKD is recognized as an important risk enhancer that identifies patients as candidates for more intensive low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol lowering. However, there is controversy regarding the efficacy of lipid-lowering therapy, especially in patients on dialysis. Among patients with CKD, not yet on dialysis, there is clinical trial evidence for the use of statins with or without ezetimibe to reduce ASCVD events. Newer cholesterol lowering agents have been introduced for the management of hyperlipidemia to reduce ASCVD, but these therapies have not been tested in the CKD population except in secondary analyses of patients with primarily CKD stage 3. This review summarizes the role of hyperlipidemia in ASCVD and treatment strategies for hyperlipidemia in the CKD population.

     

Can we delay the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) by improving collaboration between renal units and primary care teams?

This paper will discuss why nephrology teams should collaborate with primary care teams in delaying the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD), and explain how they can collaborate to improve the outcomes for patients who eventually need dialysis. The paper will describe the staging of CKD and will discuss evidence-based guidelines for the management of CKD in the community. Practical examples of how a specialist renal nurse can improve communication with primary care and can improve the outcome of patients with early kidney disease will be described.     

CAN WE DELAY THE PROGRESSION OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD) BY IMPROVING COLLABORATION BETWEEN RENAL UNITS AND PRIMARY CARE TEAMS?

This paper will discuss why nephrology teams should collaborate with primary care teams in delaying the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD), and explain how they can collaborate to improve the outcomes for patients who eventually need dialysis. The paper will describe the staging of CKD and will discuss evidence‐based guidelines for the management of CKD in the community. Practical examples of how a specialist renal nurse can improve communication with primary care and can improve the outcome of patients with early kidney disease will be described.     

Management of hepatitis C virus infection in patients with chronic kidney disease: position statement of the joint committee of Italian association for the study of the liver (AISF), Italian society of internal medicine (SIMI), Italian society of infectious and tropical disease (SIMIT) and Italian society of nephrology (SIN)

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is now considered a systemic disease due to the occurrence of extra-hepatic manifestations. Among these, the renal involvement is frequent. HCV infection, in fact, is strongly associated with proteinuria and chronic kidney disease (CKD) and negatively affects the prognosis of renal patients. In the last few years, availability of more specific and effective drugs against HCV has dramatically changed the clinical course of this disease. These drugs may provide further advantages in the CKD population as a whole by reducing progression of renal disease, mortality rate and by increasing the survival of graft in renal transplant recipients. The strict pathogenetic and prognostic link between HCV infection and CKD requires an ongoing relationship among the healthcare professionals involved in the treatment of both HCV infection and CKD. Therefore, Scientific Societies involved in the care of this high-risk population in Italy have organized a joint expert panel. The aim of the panel is to produce a position statement that can be used in daily clinical practice for the management of HCV infected patients across the whole spectrum of renal disease, from the conservative phase to renal replacement treatments (dialysis and transplantation). Sharing specific evidence-based expertise of different professional healthcare is the first step to obtain a common ground of knowledge on which to instate a model for multidisciplinary management of this high-risk population. Statements cover seven areas including epidemiology of CKD, HCV-induced glomerular damage, HCV-related renal risk, staging of liver disease in patients with CKD, prevention of transmission of HCV in hemodialysis units, treatment of HCV infection and management of HCV in kidney transplantation.     

Management of hepatitis C virus infection in patients with chronic kidney disease: position statement of the joint committee of Italian association for the study of the liver (AISF), Italian society of internal medicine (SIMI), Italian society of infectious and tropical disease (SIMIT) and Italian society of nephrology (SIN)

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is now considered a systemic disease due to the occurrence of extra-hepatic manifestations. Among these, the renal involvement is frequent. HCV infection, in fact, is strongly associated with proteinuria and chronic kidney disease (CKD) and negatively affects the prognosis of renal patients. In the last few years, availability of more specific and effective drugs against HCV has dramatically changed the clinical course of this disease. These drugs may provide further advantages in the CKD population as a whole by reducing progression of renal disease, mortality rate and by increasing the survival of graft in renal transplant recipients. The strict pathogenetic and prognostic link between HCV infection and CKD requires an ongoing relationship among the healthcare professionals involved in the treatment of both HCV infection and CKD. Therefore, Scientific Societies involved in the care of this high-risk population in Italy have organized a joint expert panel. The aim of the panel is to produce a position statement that can be used in daily clinical practice for the management of HCV infected patients across the whole spectrum of renal disease, from the conservative phase to renal replacement treatments (dialysis and transplantation). Sharing specific evidence-based expertise of different professional healthcare is the first step to obtain a common ground of knowledge on which to instate a model for multidisciplinary management of this high-risk population. Statements cover seven areas including epidemiology of CKD, HCV-induced glomerular damage, HCV-related renal risk, staging of liver disease in patients with CKD, prevention of transmission of HCV in hemodialysis units, treatment of HCV infection and management of HCV in kidney transplantation.     

Der ältere multimorbide Patient mit präterminaler Niereninsuffizienz

Patients aged 65 years and older with multiple comorbidities represent the most rapidly growing group of dialysis patients in Germany. In contrast to octo- and nonagenarians with little comorbidity and whose life expectancy clearly benefits from dialysis treatment, those elderly patients with complex comorbidity and impaired physical function show little or no benefit from dialysis. Such patients and those who refuse dialysis treatment benefit from intensive conservative management as a valid alternative. Besides the specific medications required to manage advanced chronic kidney disease, including erythropoietin, the course of conservative management should always include nutritional and physiotherapeutic aspects.