男性首发精神分裂症患者额叶质子波谱研究

目的探讨首发精神分裂症患者额叶质子波谱的特点。方法利用1H-MRS技术对10名首次发病且未经抗精神病药物治疗的男性精神分裂症患者和10正常对照的额叶进行检测。对照组的性别、年龄、利手、文化程度与患者组匹配,且精神疾病家族史为阴性。所有1H-MRS检查均在1.5T场强条件下进行,回波时间(TE)144毫秒(ms),检测的代谢物包括NAA、胆碱复合物(CHO)、肌酸(Cr),用公司提供的软件(GEFuntool2)测量各峰下面积并分别计算NAA/Cr及CHO/Cr的比值。结果采用多因素方差分析发现,患者组额叶NAA/Cr比值显著低于正常对照组(P<0.05),而两组之间CHO/Cr比值的差异不具有统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论在精神分裂症发病初期额叶神经元的完整性或功能可能已经受到损害。     

男性酒精依赖患者的威斯康星卡片分类测验及脑质子波谱动态研究

目的 通过磁共振质子波谱(1H-MRS)检测酒精依赖患者额叶代谢物质的变化,探讨酒精依赖所致认知障碍的神经生物学基础.方法 分别于戒酒前和戒酒1个月时应用1H-MRS技术,检测10例男性酒精依赖患者(患者组)的额叶氮-乙酰天门冬氨酸(NAA)、胆碱复合物(Cho)、肌酸(Cr)变化,并与10名正常对照者(对照组)进行比较;同时用威斯康星卡片分类测试(WCST)评定受试者的认知功能.结果 (1)戒酒前,患者组双侧前额叶灰质和白质NAA/Cr比值均低于对照组(P＜0.05),戒酒1个月时较戒酒前有好转(P=0.00),但仍低于对照组(P＜0.05);而Cho/Cr戒酒前后的差异元统计学意义(P＞0.05).(2)患者组戒酒前WCST中的完成分类数[(0.70±1.06)个]和概念化水平[(16.29±10.27)%]低于戒酒1个月时[分别为(3.80±2.15)个,(52.32±20.81)%],而错误应答数[(83.60±10.80)个]和持续性错误[(34.80±16.94)个]高于戒酒1个月时[分别为(42.80±21.06)个,(21.70±11.39)个;P＜0.05].(3)患者组戒酒前后右侧灰质NAA/Cr变化与WCST完成分类数的变化相关(r=0.7002,P＜0.05).结论 长期饮酒可导致酒精依赖患者前额叶代谢物浓度改变;其认知功能的损害,可能与酒精对前额叶代谢物浓度的影响有关.     

首发精神分裂症额叶白质和海马氢质子波谱的非对称性异常及其治疗1年后的变化

目的探讨首发精神分裂症患者脑代谢物非对称性的改变及其受非典型抗精神病药物治疗的影响。方法对符合美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第4版(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,DSM-Ⅳ)诊断标准的21例首发精神分裂症患者和21名健康对照进行氢质子磁共振波谱扫描,并在治疗1年后对患者再次进行扫描,检测双侧额叶白质和海马的N-乙酰天门冬氨酸(N-Acetylaspartate,NAA)、胆碱(choline,Cho)和肌酸(creatine,Cr),以Cr为参照物,分别计算双侧NAA/Cr、Cho/Cr比值。在治疗前后对患者进行阳性和阴性量表(positive and negcotive symtoms scale,PANSS)、大体功能量表(global assessment function,GAF)评定。采用配对t检验进行脑代谢物非对称性分析。结果非对称性分析发现基线期健康对照组左侧海马NAA/Cr比右侧高[(1.41±0.09)vs.(1.32±0.10),P<0.05],首发精神分裂症组左、右侧海马代谢物比较,差异无统计学意义;而经过1年治疗后,与治疗前相比首发精神分裂症组PANSS评分显著降低(68.57±27.74vs.97.95±13.81)、GAF量表评分显著增加(58.76±23.07 vs.28.05±8.99),均P<0.05,精神分裂症组左侧海马NAA/Cr比右侧高[(1.41±0.10)vs.(1.31±0.13),P<0.05]。健康对照组及首发精神分裂症组治疗前后双侧额叶白质代谢物差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论首发精神分裂症患者海马NAA/Cr的非对称性消失,经非典型抗精神病药物治疗后,在精神症状改善的同时海马NAA/Cr的非对称性恢复。     

男性精神分裂症患者前额叶质子波谱特点及其与执行功能的关系

目的探讨男性精神分裂症患者前额叶氢质子磁共振波谱(proton magnetic resonance spectrosco-py,1H-MRS)的特点及与执行功能的关系。方法纳入26例7d内未使用抗精神病药物及影响脑内乙酰胆碱神经递质药物的男性精神分裂症患者及28名男性正常对照。两组在入组24h内采用多体素1H-MRS检测前额叶生化代谢物N-乙酰基天门冬氨酸(NAA)、胆碱复合物(Cho)与肌酸复合物(Cr),完成NAA/Cr值、Cho/Cr值和NAA/(Cho+Cr)值的计算,同时进行威斯康星卡片分类测验(Wisconsin Card Sorting Test,WCST)评定受试者的执行功能。结果患者组左侧前额叶NAA/Cr值(1.40±0.34)低于对照组(1.69±0.31),差异有统计学意义(t=2.93,P0.01)。患者组WCST的错误应答数、持续应答数、持续错误数均明显高于对照组(t分别为2.32、2.25、2.40,P均小于0.05),分类数和概念化水平应答数均明显低于对照组(t=2.91,P0.01;t=2.46,P0.05)。患者组左侧前额叶NAA/Cr值与错误应答数、持续错误数呈正相关(r=0.45,P0.05;r=0.47,P0.05),与分类数、概念化水平应答数呈负相关(r=-0.54,P0.01;r=-0.56,P0.01)。结论男性精神分裂症患者左侧前额叶可能存在神经元功能和(或)结构异常,这可能是引起额叶执行功能障碍的原因。     

双相抑郁患者前额叶及海马磁共振质子波谱成像研究

目的探讨双相抑郁患者前额叶及海马磁共振质子波谱(proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy,1H-MRS)的代谢物变化特点,为其神经生物学研究提供线索。方法应用磁共振质子波谱成像技术检测26例双相抑郁患者(患者组)和26例单相抑郁患者及13例健康志愿者(对照组)双侧前额叶白质、前扣带回皮质、海马N-乙酰天门冬氨酸(N-Acetylaspartate,NAA)、胆碱(choline,Cho)、肌酸(creatine,Cr)3种代谢物,以Cr为参照物,分别计算双侧NAA/Cr和Cho/Cr比值。采用SPSS 13.0进行统计处理。结果患者组左侧前额叶白质NAA/Cr(1.65±0.31)低于对照组(2.37±0.36),左侧前额叶白质Cho/Cr(1.35±0.27)低于对照组(1.65±0.21),差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);右侧前额叶白质NAA/Cr、Cho/Cr值与正常对照组差异无统计学意义;患者组双侧前扣带回NAA/Cr、Cho/Cr值与正常对照组差异无统计学意义;患者组双侧海马NAA/Cr、Cho/Cr值与正常对照组差异无统计学意义;患者组与单相抑郁组的双侧额叶白质、双侧前扣带回皮质、双侧海马NAA/Cr、Cho/Cr值差异均无统计学意义。结论双相抑郁患者可能存在左侧前额叶神经元功能下降和膜磷脂代谢异常,其代谢物特点存在偏侧化。     

不同性别首发精神分裂症患者前额叶和丘脑质子波谱的比较研究

目的探讨首发精神分裂症患者前额叶和丘脑神经生化代谢物质的特点及其性别差异。方法纳入首发精神分裂症患者男性33例、女性31例以及男性正常对照30名、女性正常对照22名,采用多体素磁共振质子波谱(proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy,1H-MRS)检测前额叶和丘脑N-乙酰基天门冬氨酸(NAA)、胆碱复合物(Cho)与肌酸复合物(Cr),完成NAA/Cr值、Cho/Cr值的计算。患者在抗精神病药物治疗8周末复查1H-MRS,治疗前后采用阳性与阴性症状量表(positive and negative syndrome scale,PANSS)评定临床症状和疗效。结果治疗前,男性患者组、女性患者组左侧前额叶NAA/Cr值[(1.38±0.33)、(1.37±0.35)]、左侧丘脑NAA/Cr值[(1.47±0.35)、(1.45±0.38)]均分别低于同性别正常对照组[(1.61±0.38)、(1.63±0.37)和(1.71±0.38)、(1.72±0.39)],差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。治疗前与治疗后,男性与女性患者组之间1H-MRS各代谢指标的差异均无统计学意义(P0.05),两组中NAA/Cr值、Cho/Cr值的治疗前后自身比较均无明显差异(P0.05)。男性患者组治疗前后左侧前额叶NAA/Cr变化值分别与PANSS总分及阴性症状因子分的变化值呈负相关(r=-0.39,P0.05;r=-0.43,P0.05)。结论未发现首发精神分裂症患者前额叶和丘脑代谢物存在明显的性别差异,但男性左侧前额叶NAA浓度的变化与阴性症状的变化可能有关。     

抑郁症患者前额叶、海马磁共振质子波谱成像的研究

目的探讨抑郁症患者前额叶、海马的磁共振质子波谱(1H-MRS)变化特点。方法应用1H-MRS成像技术检测26例抑郁症患者(抑郁症组)和20名健康对照者(对照组)的前额叶、海马N-乙酰天门冬氨酸(NAA)、胆碱(Cho)、肌酸(Cr)3种代谢物,计算NAA/Cr和Cho/Cr比值。以抑郁症组年龄的中位数(38.5岁)为界将抑郁症组和对照组分为低年龄组[(28±7)岁,14例;(22±6)岁,9名]与高年龄组[(54±9)岁,12例;(53±7)岁,11名]。按病程分为首次发病组(19例,以下简称首发组)和复发组(7例)。采用方差分析进行统计比较。结果高年龄组患者左侧前额叶Cho/Cr(1.60±0.45)×10-6高于对照组(1.28±0.20)×10-6,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);低年龄组患者右侧前额叶Cho/Cr(1.74±0.51)×10-6高于对照组(1.22±0.40)×10-6,差异有统计学意义(P<0.01)。高年龄组患者左侧海马NAA/Cr(1.16±0.31)×10-6低于对照组(2.21±0.83)×10-6,差异有统计学意义(P<0.01);低年龄组患者左侧海马Cho/Cr(1.54±0.44)×10-6高于对照组(1.08±0.35)×10-6,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。首发组患者左侧前额叶Cho/Cr(1.57±0.42)×10-6高于对照组(1.26±0.21)×10-6,复发组患者右侧前额叶Cho/Cr(1.77±0.50)×10-6高于对照组(1.29±0.32)×10-6,差异均有统计学意义(P均<0.01)。首发组患者左侧海马NAA/Cr(1.19±0.26)×10-6及复发组患者左侧海马NAA/Cr(1.10±0.29)×10-6均低于对照组(1.87±0.81)×10-6,复发组患者右侧海马Cho/Cr(2.13±0.51)×10-6高于对照组(1.51±0.52)×10-6,差异均有统计学意义(P均<0.01)。结论抑郁症患者可能存在前额叶、左侧海马细胞膜代谢异常,高年龄抑郁症患者的左侧海马神经元活力下降。     

抑郁症首次发病患者额叶三维磁共振氢质子波谱分析研究

目的探讨抑郁症首次发病患者额叶灰、白质可能存在的神经生化异常。方法对24例首次发病抑郁症患者(抑郁症20例,双相障碍抑郁发作者4例;抑郁症组)进行磁共振常规扫描及应用三维磁共振氢质子波谱(1HMRS)检查,测量双侧额叶背外侧白质和前部扣带回皮质的N-乙酰天门冬氨酸(NAA)、胆碱复合物(CHO)、肌醇(MI)和肌酸(CR)的绝对值,计算NAA、CHO、MI与CR的比值,并与21名正常对照者(对照组)作比较。结果(1)抑郁症组患者前额叶扣带回皮质CHO[(772±59)MMOL/L]、MI[(131±39)MMOL/L]的绝对值及CHO/CR(2·3±0·4)、MI/CR(0·39±0·14)均高于对照组[分别为(663±70)MMOL/L,(99±26)MMOL/L,2·0±0·4,0·30±0·01],差异均有统计学意义(P均<0·01);而NAA的绝对值及NAA/CR与对照组的差异无统计学意义(P>0·05)。(2)抑郁症组患者额叶背外侧白质内NAA、CHO、MI的绝对值以及NAA/CR、CHO/CR、MI/CR的比值与对照组的差异均无统计学意义(P均>0·05)。结论抑郁症患者额叶扣带回皮质的CHO、MI绝对值以及CHO/CR、MI/CR比值均增高。     

精神分裂症患者脑部质子波谱特点及其与临床症状的关系

目的 探讨精神分裂症患者前额叶、丘脑氧质子磁共振波谱(proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy,1H-MRS)的特点及其与临床症状的关系.方法 本研究纳入7 d内未使用抗精神病药物及影响脑内乙酰胆碱神经递质药物的32例精神分裂症患者和36名正常对照,入组24 h内采用多体素1H-MRS检测受试者前额叶和丘脑生化代谢物N-乙酰基天门冬氨酸(NAA)、胆碱复合物(Cho)与肌酸复合物(Cr),并计算NAA/Cr、Cho/Cr和NAA/(Cho+Cr)的比值.患者组同时进行阳性和阴性症状量表(PANSS)评估.结果 患者组左侧前额叶及左右侧丘脑NAA/Cr值[分别为(1.30±0.39)、(1.53±0.36)和(1.47±0.35)]均低于对照组[分别为(1.74±0.24)、(1.73±0.25)和(1.74±0.31)],差异具有统计学意义(P＜0.05);患者组左侧前额叶NAA/(Cho+cr)值[(0.63±0.12)]低于对照组[(0.74±0.21)],差异具有统计学意义(P＜0.05).患者组左侧前额叶NAA/Cr值与PANSS总分及阴性症状分呈负相关(r=-0.48,P＜0.01;r=-0.54,P＜0.01),右侧丘脑NAA/Cr值与阴性症状呈负相关(r=-0.44,P＜0.01).结论 精神分裂症患者前额叶及丘脑存在神经元功能和(或)结构异常,左侧前额叶NAA/Cr值可能作为反映精神分裂症患者阴性症状严重程度的参考指标.     

阳性症状为主型精神分裂症首次发病患者前额叶和海马磁共振质子波谱成像研究

目的 探讨阳性症状为主型精神分裂症首次发病患者前额叶和海马的磁共振质子波谱(1H-MRS)变化特点,为其病因学探讨提供线索.方法 对22例首次发病精神分裂症阳性症状为主型患者(患者组)和11名年龄、性别、受教育时间均匹配的正常对照者(对照组),应用2D 1H-MRS成像技术检测2组双侧前额叶白质、前扣带回皮质、海马N-乙酰天门冬氨酸(NAA)、胆碱(Cho)、肌酸(Cr)3种代谢物,分别计算NAA/Cr和Cho/Cr的比值;采用配对t检验、独立样本t检验进行统计分析.结果 (1)患者组左侧额叶白质NAA/Cr和Cho/Cr分别为(1.63±0.30)和(1.23±0.26),均低于对照组[(2.10±0.30)、(1.54±0.25)],右侧额叶白质NAA/Cr(1.70±0.34)低于对照组(1.97±0.34),差异有统计学意义(P<0.01和P<0.05);(2)双侧前扣带回皮质NAA/Cr、Cho/Cr值与对照组差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);(3)患者组右侧海马NAA/Cr(1.59±0.27)高于对照组(1.24±0.17),差异有统计学意义(P<0.01);(4)对照组内左侧额叶白质Cho/Cr(1.54±0.25)高于右侧(1.35±0.18),左侧海马NAA/Cr(1.45±0.28)高于右侧(1.24±0.17),差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05);(5)患者组内左侧海马NAA/Cr和Cho/Cr分别为(1.43±0.27)和(1.39±0.38),均低于右侧[(1.59±0.27)、(1.56±0.39)],差异有统计学意义(P<0.05).结论 首发精神分裂症阳性症状为主型患者的1H-MRS代谢物与正常人存在差异,提示阳性症状为主型患者存在双侧前额叶白质、海马的神经功能障碍.

Abstract：

Objective To identify the possible alteration of brain functioning in prefrontal lobes and hippocampus in the first-episode positive symptoms of schizophrenia using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS). Methods 1H-MRS was performed on prefrontal white matter, anterior cingulated cortex and hippocampus in 22 patients and 11 age-, sex-, and education-matched right-handed healthy controls. The ratios of N-acetylaspartate (NAA)/creatine (Cr) and choline-containing compounds (Cho)/Cr were calculated. Results The NAA/Cr and Cho/Cr ratios in the left prefrontal white matter in patients were lower than that in normal controls (patients, NAA/Cr 1. 63 ±0. 30; Cho/Cr 1. 23 ±0. 26; controls, NAA/Cr 2. 10 ±0. 30; Cho/Cr 1. 54 ± 0. 25, P<0. 01) , and NAA/Cr in the right prefrontal white matter was lower in patients than in controls (patients 1. 70 ± 0. 34; controls 1. 97 ± 0. 34, P<0. 05). There were no significant difference in NAA/Cr, Cho/Cr for the bilateral anterior cingulated cortex between patients and controls (P>0. 05). The ratio of NAA/Cr in the right hippocampus was significantly higher in patients than that in controls (patients 1. 59 ± 0. 27; controls 1. 24 ± 0. 17, P<0. 01). In addition, in healthy controls,Cho/Cr was significantly higher in the left prefrontal white matter than in the right (left 1. 54 ± 0. 25; right 1. 35 ±0. 18, P<0. 05) , and NAA/Cr in the left hippocampus was significantly higher than in the right (left 1. 45 ± 0. 28; right 1. 24 ± 0. 17, P<0. 05). While NAA/Cr and Cho/Cr in the left hippocampus were significantly lower than in the right hippocampus in schizophrenia patients (left, NAA/Cr 1.43 ± 0. 27;Cho/Cr 1.39 ±0.38; right, NAA/Cr 1.59 ±0.27; Cho/Cr 1.56 ±0.39, P<0.05). Conclusion There is the significant difference of manifestation of 1H-MRS between schizophrenia patients with positive symptoms and normal controls, which reflects neuronal dysfunction in the prefrontal lobes and hippocampus.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.