Management of perforation after endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP): a population-based review

Background. Perforation related to endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is a rare complication associated with significant morbidity and mortality. This study evaluated the management and outcomes of these perforations. Patients and methods. Between July 1996 and December 2002, a total of 6620 ERCPs were performed at our regional endoscopy unit serving the 1.5 million population of Southern Alberta. Thirty perforations (0.45%) were identified and retrospectively reviewed. Results. Seven of these 30 patients were found to have guidewire perforations of the bile duct, 11 perforations were peri-ampullary, 3 duodenal, 1 esophageal, and 1 patient had a perforation of an afferent limb of a Billroth II anastomosis. In seven patients the location of the perforation could not be determined (unknown). All patients with guidewire perforations were recognized during ERCP, and all were managed medically. Of the 11 peri-ampullary perforations, 7 of these patients had a pre-cut sphincterotomy, 5 underwent surgery and 4 patients died. Delay in diagnosis occurred in all patients that died. Of the three duodenal perforations, all required operation and one patient died. Of the seven ‘unknown’ retroperitoneal perforations, two patients required surgery and there was no mortality. The patients with esophageal and afferent limb perforations both recovered uneventfully after surgery. Most patients who required surgery had retroperitoneal fluid seen on CT scanning. Conclusions. We found that most guidewire perforations can be managed medically with little morbidity. Pre-cut sphincterotomy is a risk factor for perforation. Peri-ampullary and duodenal perforations have a high morbidity and mortality rate. In particular, retroperitoneal fluid collections on CT scans, delay in diagnosis and failure of medical therapy requiring salvage surgery are associated with poor outcomes. Early aggressive surgery may improve patient care.     

ERCP在不明原因复发性急性胰腺炎诊治中的作用

目的探讨ERCP在不明原因复发性急性胰腺炎(RAP)诊治中的作用。方法收集15例不明原因RAP患者。其中男5例,女10例,年龄25～65岁,中位年龄38岁,病程1～2年,发病次数2～5次。10例在急性发作期,5例在发作间期行ERCP诊治。结果15例患者经ERCP明确病因者6例(3例胆管微结石,1例胆总管末端小囊肿,1例胰管小结石,1例胰管蛋白栓子),可疑病因者6例(乳头旁憩室2例,十二指肠乳头炎4例),未明确病因者3例。根据ERCP检查结果,9例行乳头括约肌切开术(EST),6例行胰管括约肌切开术。术后随访2年,15例患者均未复发胰腺炎。ERCP和EST术后2例出现一过性高淀粉酶血症,无其他并发症。结论ERCP对不明原因RAP有明确病因和指导治疗的作用。     

Therapeutic endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography and related modalities have many roles in hepatobiliary hydatid disease

The authors report their experience about 8 cases of intrabiliary rupture of hepatobiliary hydatid disease, and add an algorithm for treatment. To our opinion, the use of diagnostic and therapeutic endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) in the management of hepatobiliary hydatid disease was not stated properly in their proposed algorithm. According to the algorithm, the use of ERCP and related modalities was only stated in the case of postoperative biliary fistulae. We think that postoperative persistant fistula is not a sole indication, there are many indications for ERCP and related techniques namely sphincterotomy, extraction, nasobiliary drainage and stenting, in the treatment algorithm before or after surgery.     

Mathematical model for predicting biliary therapeutic endoscopic retrograde pancreatography (ERCP)

INTRODUCTION: Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography is as sensitive as endoscopic retrograde pancreatography in the evaluation of biliary tract diseases but does not offer therapeutic options. The aim of the present study was to develop a mathematical model to predict 'therapeutic endoscopic retrograde pancreatography' using clinical variables so that patients with low probability could be more appropriately investigated by magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography in future. METHODS: Endoscopic retrograde pancreatography cases between January 1996 to December 1997 were retrospectively reviewed (before introduction of magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography). Clinical, biochemical and radiological variables were analysed and a model was developed using multiple logistic regression. RESULTS: Case notes for 573 patients were successfully reviewed. A total of 330 patients underwent therapeutic endoscopic retrograde pancreatography (sphincterotomy or stent insertion). Clinical indications of obstructive jaundice and cholangitis, ultrasonographic findings of dilated common bile duct, and raised liver function tests (two or more elevated parameters) were each found to be predictive for 'therapeutic' endoscopic retrograde pancreatography. Using these variables, the mathematical model in the present study has specificity of 77% and sensitivity of 75% at the probability level of 50% or higher. This model has been tested in a separate group of endoscopic retrograde pancreatography cases carried out in 1998 and was found to have sensitivity 77.6%, specificity 80.3%, positive predictive value 68.5% and negative predictive value 86.6%. CONCLUSIONS: The model reported in the present study can help clinicians to identify cases for therapeutic endoscopic retrograde pancreatography and diagnostic magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography.     

儿童胰腺炎ERCP术后并发症研究

目的 分析儿童胰腺炎患者经内镜逆行胰胆管造影(endoscopic retrograde cholangiop-ancreatography,ERCP)术后高淀粉酶血症、胰腺炎及出血等并发症的发生率,探讨其安全性。方法 回顾分析1997年2月～2002年2月间入住我科确诊为儿童胰腺炎并行ERCP术的27例患者的临床资料,其中急性胰腺炎(acute pancreatitis,AP)14例,慢性胰腺炎(chronic pancreatitis,CP)13例;诊断性ERCP 9例,治疗性ERCP18例。结果 27例患者ERCP术后总体并发症发生率为51.85％(l4/27),其中,高淀粉酶血症发生率22.22％(6/27),术后4、24h血清淀粉酶水平分别为(410.75±230.31)U/L、(367.25±233.90)U/L,48～72h后均恢复正常;胰腺炎发生率22.22％(6/27),均为轻型胰腺炎;乳头切开处出血、黑便发生率7.41％(2/27),均发生于胆总管结石行十二指肠乳头括约肌切开(endoscopicsphincterotomy,EST)+取石术后;诊断性ERCP组并发症的发生率低于治疗性ERCP组,但无统计学意义。结论 儿童胰腺炎患者ERCP术后具有较高的并发症发生率,内镜医师于ERCP术中应高度重视,采取必要的预防措施以减少并发症的发生。     

Retroperitoneal perforation of a pancreatic cyst during endoscopic retrograde pancreatography

A 70‐year‐old man was admitted to Ueno Municipal Hospital, Ueno, Japan, for evaluation of abdominal distension. Computed tomography showed a 1 × 1 cm cyst at the pancreas tail. Endoscopic retrograde pancreatography (ERP) showed a normal pancreatic duct after the first gentle injection and an enhanced cyst at the pancreas tail. Extravasation of the contrast medium occurred from the pancreatic duct to the superior‐dorsal extrapancreas at the same time of the next low‐pressure manual injection. Computed tomography showed extravasation of the contrast medium from the pancreas cyst to the retroperitoneal space after ERP. It was considered that the cyst wall weakness, in addition to slight elevated pancreatic duct pressure, caused the disruption of the cyst wall.     

YouTube as a source of information on endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) carries a higher risk of adverse events than standard endoscopy. Internet media platforms such as YouTube has emerged as a medical information source. Therefore, study aimed to identify whether YouTube videos provide appropriate information on ERCP to the general population. The YouTube search was performed using the terms “endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography” and “ERCP”. The top 50 results of both searches, sorted by relevance and view count, were collected. After filtering according to a set of inclusion and exclusion criteria, a total of 26 videos were eligible for the final analysis. For quality assessment, we created a scoring system called ERCP Data Quality score (E-DQS), based on a colonoscopy education video available on the American Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy website. Healthcare professionals uploaded 14 (53.8%) videos, and 10 (38.6%) uploaded by medical websites. Only one video was uploaded by a layperson and one by a TV channel. The overall median E-DQS score for enrolled videos was 6.5 out of 20. The majority of videos did not describe the unique features of ERCP. Only 50% of videos informed viewers that patients would be irradiated and only six videos described at least one adverse event related to ERCP. ERCP videos on YouTube provide inadequate information regarding ERCP. Considering the unique characteristics of this procedure, professionals and academic societies need to be vigilant and proactive in producing and promoting high-quality videos.     

Original research: Endoscopic management of intentional foreign body ingestion: experience from a UK centre

ObjectiveWe report on the increasing incidence and outcomes from intentional foreign body ingestion (iFoBI) presenting to our hospital over a 5-year period. The aim was to assess the impact on services and to identify ways to safely mitigate against this clinical challenge.Design/methodWe performed a retrospective observational study of all patients presenting to a university hospital between January 2015 and April 2020 with iFoBI with a focus on objects swallowed, timing of endoscopy and clinical outcomes.Results239 episodes of iFoBI in 51 individuals were recorded with a significant increase in incidence throughout the study period (Welch (5, 17.3)=15.1, p<0.001), imposing a high burden on staff and resources. Items lodged in the oesophagus were more likely to lead to mucosal injury (p=0.009) compared with elsewhere. Ingested item type and timing of endoscopy were not related to complications (p=0.78) or length of stay (p=0.8). In 12% of cases, no objects were seen at endoscopy.ConclusionIn all except those patients with oesophageal impaction of the object on radiograph, there is no need to perform endoscopic extraction out of hours. A subset of cases can avoid endoscopy with an X-ray immediately prior to the procedure as a significant proportion have passed already. We discuss more holistic approaches to deal with recurrent attendances.     

Original research: Improving safety and reducing error in endoscopy (ISREE): a survey of UK services

BackgroundThe Joint Advisory Group on Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (JAG) ‘Improving Safety and Reducing Error in Endoscopy’ (ISREE) strategy was developed in 2018. In line with the strategy, a survey was conducted within the JAG census in 2019 to gain further insights and understanding of key safety-related areas within UK endoscopy.MethodsQuestions were developed using the ISREE strategy as a guide and adapted by key JAG stakeholders. They were incorporated into the 2019 JAG census of UK endoscopy services. Quantitative and qualitative statistical methods were employed to analyse the results.ResultsThere was a 68% response rate. There was regional variability in the provision of out-of-hours GIB services (p<0.001). Across 1 month, 1535 incidents were reported across all services. There was a significantly higher proportion of reported incidents in acute services compared with others (p<0.001). Technical and training incidents were likely to be reported significantly differently to all other incident types. 74% of services have an endoscopy-specific sedation policy and 42% have a named sedation or anaesthetic lead for endoscopy. Services highlighted a desire for more anaesthetic-supported lists. Only 66% of services stated they have an effective strategy for supporting upskilling of endoscopists. Across acute services, 56% have access to human factors and endoscopic non-technical skills (ENTS) training. Patient feedback is used in several ways to improve services, develop training and promote shared learning among endoscopy users.ConclusionsThe census provides a benchmark for key safety-related characteristics of endoscopy services. These results have highlighted key areas to develop, guided by the ISREE strategy.     

Role of endoscopic retrograde pancreatography in pancreatic ascites

Summary We present a case of pancreatic ascites. The diagnosis was strongly suspected on the basis of ascitic fluid analysis and was confirmed by observation of pancreatic duct contrast leakage at endoscopic retrograde panreatography (ERP). Computed tomography was not helpful in this case. For localization and final confirmation of the lesion, ERP is the most valuable investigative method.     

经内镜逆行胰胆管造影术的若干进展

作为一项成熟应用于胆胰疾病的高级内镜诊疗技术,经内镜逆行胰胆管造影(ERCP)近几年来在治疗理念和技术方面有了一些新的发展。对ERCP的若干进展进行了阐述,主要包括:运用胰管支架、非甾体抗炎类药物及大量水化预防术后胰腺炎,覆膜金属支架用于治疗良性胆管狭窄,恶性胆管狭窄的腔内射频消融治疗,体外冲击波碎石术和覆膜金属支架治疗慢性胰腺炎,经口胆道镜应用于胆管狭窄定性诊断和巨大难治性结石,困难插管的定义和预切开技术的时机以及胃肠道重建术后ERCP。     

肝硬化患者经内镜逆行胰胆管造影治疗的安全性分析

目的探讨肝硬化患者接受经内镜逆行胰胆管造影(ERCP)治疗的安全性。方法回顾性分析2010年1月至2013年11月在北京佑安医院接受ERCP治疗的347例患者的临床资料,将所有患者分为无肝病组(258例)、慢性肝炎组(40例)和肝硬化组(49例)。采用单因素方差分析和Kruskal-Wallis H分析3组患者ERCP术后ALT、AST、白蛋白(Alb)、TBil、白细胞(WBC)、中性粒细胞百分数、血淀粉酶的变化,χ2检验分析ERCP术后高淀粉酶血症、急性胰腺炎、感染、出血和穿孔等并发症发生率和疾病诊断的分布。结果肝硬化组患者术前血清Alb、ALT、AST水平低于无肝病组和慢性肝炎组,差异有统计学意义(F=3.68,P=0.028;H=14.03,P=0.001和H=8.00,P=0.018)。肝硬化组患者术后TBil水平高于其他2组,差异有统计学意义(H=6.69,P=0.035)。44.9%(22/49)的肝硬化组患者术后3 d的AST和TBil高于术前,在3组中的比例最高。肝硬化组患者术后1 d中性粒细胞百分数为(73.9±12.7)%,与无肝病组(74.8±11.0)%相近,高于慢性肝炎组,3组比较差异有统计学意义(H=7.31,P=0.026)。虽然术后3 d中性粒细胞百分数80%的患者的比例在3组中差异无统计学意义,但是肝硬化组患者的比例最高,为18.4%(9/258)。肝硬化组、无肝病组和慢性肝炎组ERCP术后24 h高淀粉酶血症的发生率是分别是53.1%、31.8%和40.0%,差异有统计学意义(χ2=8.48,P=0.014);3组患者ERCP术后总并发症的发生率分别为18.4%、8.1%和7.5%,差异有统计学意义(χ2=26.73,P0.00 1)。结论 ERCP诊治肝硬化患者具有良好的耐受性、安全性和成功率,术后需要警惕高淀粉酶血症。     

内镜下逆行胰胆管造影在高龄急性胆囊炎患者中的临床应用

目的探讨内镜下逆行胰胆管造影（ERCP）在高龄（≥75岁）急性胆囊炎患者中的临床应用。方法回顾性分析2008年1月至2012年12月拟行ERCP治疗的75岁以上胆囊炎患者。本次急性发作时间为1～5 d,均经影像学（包括腹部超声、CT及磁共振）确诊为急性胆囊炎。所有手术患者均给予留置鼻-胆囊引流（ENGBD）,术后观察腹部体征、体温、C反应蛋白（CRP）,腹部影像学及记录胆囊引流情况,出院后定期随访。结果共有24名患者,其中男13例,女11例,年龄75～88岁,平均（81.0±3.2）岁接受ERCP检查,其中术前诊断18例为结石性胆囊炎（75.0%）,6例为非结石性胆囊炎（25%）,13例（54.2%）合并胆总管结石。所有患者均成功留置鼻胆引流管,21例（87.5%）于术后腹痛缓解,体温降至正常,CRP于术后6 d内均降至正常。2例（8.3%）术后出现高淀粉酶,3 d后降至正常。无ERCP相关穿孔、出血、术后胰腺炎、死亡等并发症出现。术后随访3～12个月,23例（95.8%）症状长期缓解,1例因症状反复出现行腹腔镜手术。结论对于无法行急诊手术的高龄急性胆囊炎患者,行ERCP留置鼻-胆囊引流管治疗是一种安全、有效的治疗方法。     

经内镜逆行胰胆管造影术后迟发性胆道出血的原因和应对措施

目的探讨经内镜逆行胰胆管造影（ERCP）术后迟发性胆道出血的原因和应对措施。方法回顾性分析1007例行ERCP的术后并发症,7例为迟发性胆道出血,对出血时间、疾病谱、出血量和治疗过程进行分析。结果出血患者均存在胆管炎症,出血时间在术后24 h至2周,出血量为少量至中等量（≤1000 ml）,内科保守治疗效果良好。结论ERCP术后迟发性胆道出血临床罕见,内科保守治疗预后良好。     

Non‐radiation endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the management of choledocholithiasis during pregnancy

Gallstone diseases are common during pregnancy. In most cases, patients are asymptomatic and do not require any treatment. However, choledocholithiasis, cholangitis, and gallstone pancreatitis may potentially become life‐threatening for both mother and fetus and often require urgent intervention. Although endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) has become the standard technique for removing common bile duct stones, it is associated with ionizing radiation that could carry teratogenic risk. Non‐radiation ERCP (NR‐ERCP) is reported to be effective without incurring this risk. Two techniques have been described to confirm bile duct cannulation: bile aspiration and image guidance. With bile aspiration, biliary cannulation is confirmed by applying suction to the cannula to yield bile, thus confirming an intrabiliary position. Image guidance involves using ultrasound or direct visualization (choledochoscopy) to confirm selective biliary cannulation or duct clearance. Once cannulation is achieved, the stones are removed using standard ERCP techniques and tools. Case series and retrospective studies have reported success rates of up to 90% for NR‐ERCP with complication rates similar to standard ERCP. Pregnancy outcomes are not adversely affected by NR‐ERCP, but whether the avoidance of radiation carries benefit for the baby is unknown. Prospective comparative trials are lacking. NR‐ERCP is technically demanding and should be attempted only by skilled biliary endoscopists in properly equipped and staffed health‐care institutions, in a multidisciplinary setting.     

Advances in endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography cannulation

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography is an important tool in the diagnosis and treatment of pancreatobiliary diseases. A critical step in this procedure is deep cannulation of the bile duct as failure of cannulation generally results in an aborted procedure and failed intervention. Expert endoscopists usually achieve a high rate of successful cannulation while those less experienced typically have a much lower rate and a greater incidence of complications. Prolonged attempts at cannulation can result in significant morbidity to patients, anxiety for endoscopists, unnecessary radiation exposure and inefficient patient care. Here we review the most common endoscopic techniques used to achieve selective biliary cannulation. Pharmacologic aids to cannulation are also discussed briefly in this review.     

Original research: Endoscopy training in the UK pre-COVID–19 environment: a multidisciplinary survey of endoscopy training and the experience of reciprocal feedback

ObjectiveTraining in gastrointestinal endoscopy in the UK occurs predominantly in a real world one-to-one trainer to trainee interaction. Previous surveys have shown surgical and gastroenterology trainees have had mixed experiences of supervision and training, and no surveys have explored specifically the role of trainee to trainer feedback. This study aimed to explore the experience of training and of providing trainer feedback for all disciplines of endoscopy trainees.Design/methodAn online survey designed in collaboration with Joint Advisory Committee training committee and trainee representatives was distributed from January 2020 but was interrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic and hence terminated early.ResultsThere were 129 responses, including trainees from all disciplines and regions, of which 86/129 (66.7%) rated the culture in their endoscopy units favourably—either good or excellent. 65/129 (50.4%) trainees reported having one or more training lists allocated per week, with 41/129 (31.8%) reporting only ad hoc lists. 100/129 (77.5%) respondents were given feedback and 97/129 (75.2%) were provided with learning points from the list. 65/129 (50.4%) respondents reported their trainer completed a direct observation of procedure or direct observation of polypectomies. 73/129 (56.6%) respondents reported that they felt able to give feedback to their trainer, with 88/129 (68.2%) feeling they could do this accurately. Barriers to trainer feedback cited included time constraints, lack of anonymity and concerns about affecting the trainer–trainee relationship.ConclusionOverall, the training environment has improved since previous surveys. There are still issues around interdisciplinary differences with some surgical trainees finding the training environment less welcoming, and trainee perceptions of hierarchical barriers and trainer responsiveness to feedback limiting the accuracy of their feedback.     

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography should no longer be used as a diagnostic test: the case against

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography has been used successfully in diagnosis of pancreatico-biliary diseases. Over the past decade, there have been tremendous developments in radiological technologies which have led to the emergence of new and less invasive modalities like endoscopic ultrasound and spiral computed tomography and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography. Understandably, the usefulness of diagnostic endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography is being questioned primarily because of its potential attendant complications. Therefore, this controversial question needs to be debated in the gastroenterology community. In this article, we compare the efficacy of newer diagnostic tools with existing "gold standard" modality--endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, and put forward our arguments in favour of a continuing role for endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography as a diagnostic tool in certain circumstances.