New Strategies for the Treatment of Type 2

This review of current developments in the treatment of type 2 diabetes focuses on the achievement of normoglycemia through appropriately defined goals of diet, exercise, and drug therapy. Clinical nutritionists are central partners in the management of type 2 diabetes, and nutrition therapy is still considered the first-line therapy of choice. A nutritionist's role in the treatment of type 2 diabetes is to ensure an individualized, nutritionally adequate diet for patients, uncomplicated by episodes of hypoglycemia. In this role, clinical nutritionists must be aware of potential drug interactions with diet therapy and may be able to provide essential feedback about possible drug interactions to other members of the health care team, including nurses, pharmacists, and physicians. The role of insulin in treating type 2 diabetes is reexamined in the light of newly available oral antidiabetic agents and increasing awareness of the importance of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia in the development of diabetes complications. Because many patients use insulin to reduce blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin (HbA_1c) to acceptable levels, management should combine diet therapy with insulin and/or 1 or 2 oral antidiabetic agents to help minimize the dose of exogenous insulin needed for glucose control. J Am Diet Assoc. 1999;99:329–334.     

不同治疗对初发2型糖尿病胰岛功能的影响

目的探讨初发2型糖尿病不同治疗方法对胰岛β细胞功能的影响。方法对62例初发糖尿病患者经2周胰岛素泵强化治疗后分别给予胰岛素及口服降糖药物治疗6个月观察两组胰岛β细胞功能。结果强化血糖控制后继用胰岛素或口服降糖药治疗6个月后,患者空腹血糖、餐后2h血糖和C肽、HbAlc,HOMA-β与治疗前比较差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）,而餐后2hC肽仅在胰岛素治疗组前后比较差异具有统计学意义。结论早期糖尿病严格血糖控制可明显改善胰岛β细胞功能,对于解除高血糖毒性的患者不论继续采用胰岛素治疗还是口服降糖药物均可良好控制血糖并进一步改善胰岛β细胞功能。     

Basal insulin therapy in type 2 diabetes

Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus are usually treated initially with oral antidiabetic agents, but as the disease progresses, most patients eventually require insulin to maintain glucose control. Optimal insulin therapy should mimic the normal physiologic secretion of insulin and minimize the risk of hypoglycemia. This article discusses the role of insulin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes, emphasizing long-acting insulin agents designed to approximate physiologic basal insulin secretion and provide control over fasting plasma glucose. Clinical trials of recently developed long-acting insulins are reviewed herein, with emphasis on studies that combined basal insulin with oral agents or with short-acting insulins in a basal-bolus approach. The normal physiologic pattern of insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells consists of a sustained basal insulin level throughout the day, superimposed after meals by relatively large bursts of insulin that slowly decay over 2 to 3 hours (bolus insulin). Basal support with long-acting insulin is a key component of basal-bolus therapy for patients with diabetes who require insulin with or without the addition of oral agents. Newer long-acting agents such as insulin glargine provide a steadier and more reliable level of basal insulin coverage and may have significant advantages over traditional long-acting insulins as part of a basal-bolus treatment strategy.     

A review of nateglinide in the management of patients with type 2 diabetes

Impaired insulin secretion occurs early in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and is chronic and progressive, resulting initially in impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and eventually in T2DM. As most patients with T2DM have both insulin resistance and insulin deficiency, therapy for T2DM should aim to control not only fasting, but also postprandial plasma glucose levels. While oral glucose-lowering treatment with metformin and thiazolidinediones corrects fasting plasma glucose, these agents do not address the problem of mealtime glucose spikes that have been shown to trigger atherogenic processes. Nateglinide is a derivative of the amino acid D-phenylalanine, which acts directly on the pancreatic beta-cells to stimulate insulin secretion. Nateglinide monotherapy controls significantly mealtime hyperglycemia and results in improved overall glycemic control in patients with T2DM by reducing glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels. The combination of nateglinide with insulin-sensitising agents, such as metformin and thiazolidinediones, targets both insulin deficiency and insulin resistance and results in reductions in HbA1c that could not be achieved by monotherapy with other antidiabetic agents. In prediabetic subjects with IGT, nateglinide restores early insulin secretion and reduces postprandial hyperglycemia. Nateglinide has an excellent safety and tolerability profile and provides a lifetime flexibility that other antidiabetic agents could not accomplish. The aim of this review is to identify nateglinide as an effective "gate-keeper" in T2DM, since it restores early-phase insulin secretion and prevents mealtime glucose spikes throughout the day and to evaluate the results of ongoing research into its potential role in delaying the progression to overt diabetes and reducing its complications and mortality.     

2型糖尿病患者应用胰岛素泵控制高血糖状态的疗效观察

目的比较在初诊和口服降糖药效果差的2型糖尿病(T2DM)患者中应用胰岛素泵控制高血糖状态的疗效。方法选择32例初诊的T2DM患者(NDM组)和64例口服降糖药效果差的T2DM患者(ODM组),两组血糖水平、体重指数(BMI)、年龄、性别构成等均匹配,均给予胰岛素泵强化治疗。结果(1)NDM组的血糖达标时间(GT)、胰岛素最大剂量均低于ODM组,P均<0.05。(2)多元回归分析显示,在NDM组中影响GT的主要因素为空腹血糖(FBG)、糖化血红蛋白,影响胰岛素最大剂量的因素是糖化血红蛋白、BMI;而在ODM组中影响GT的主要因素为年龄、FBG、病程,影响胰岛素最大剂量的因素是治疗前FBG和餐后2h血糖、病程。结论初诊的T2DM患者可能较口服降糖药效果差的T2DM患者对胰岛素泵降糖效果更满意。影响两组患者GT及胰岛素用量的因素不完全相同。     

Continuing care of patients with cardiovascular risk in general practice: diabetic patients and their care

INTRODUCTION: Both types of diabetes mellitus are conditions with high cardiovascular risk. AIMS: This work was aimed to study the frequency of cardiovascular risk factors, macrovascular and microvascular complications and to assess the results of continuous diabetes care in an adult population with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Method of the study was a questionnaire survey, altogether 400 patients, 49 with type 1 and 351 with type 2 diabetes, were enrolled to it. RESULTS: Frequency of cardiovascular complications, obesity, hypertension and dyslipidemia was higher in type 2 diabetes, smoking and microvascular complications were more frequent in type 1 diabetes. The ratio of conservative intensive and conventional insulin therapy in type 1 diabetes was 70% and 30%, respectively. Treatment methods used in type 2 diabetes were: diet only: 8%, oral antidiabetic therapy: 78%, antidiabetic agent and insulin: 7%, insulin therapy 7%. Ratios of the patients having at least three laboratory results were: fasting blood glucose: 50%, postprandial blood glucose: 30%, haemoglobin A(1C): 10%. Ratios of patients reached the target results were in type 1 and type 2 diabetes were: fasting blood glucose: 27% vs. 14%, postprandial blood glucose: 26% vs. 18%, haemoglobin-A: 29% vs. 34%. Ratios of the patients in micro- and macrovascular risk category were: fasting blood glucose: 59% vs. 68%, postprandial blood glucose: 54% and 53%, haemoglobin-A(1C): 40% vs. 27%. CONCLUSIONS: Frequency of investigations to estimate glycemic control as well as ratio of patients reached target values were rather low, ratio of patients in micro- and macrovascular risk category was high. For these reasons there is a need for a more intensive continuous diabetes care to reach better results.     

胰岛素诺合灵30R对老年2型糖尿病患者的疗效及安全性分析

目的探究胰岛素诺和灵30R在老年2型糖尿病患者治疗中的效果及安全性。方法选取某院内分泌科2010～2011年间治疗的140例老年糖尿病患者为研究对象,随即将他们分为两组,诺和灵组70例患者给予诺和灵30R治疗;对照组70例患者给予口服降糖药治疗。观察两组患者在空腹血糖(FPG)、餐后2h血糖(2hPBG)、糖化血红蛋白(HbA1c)和低血糖事件发生的情况。结果治疗后诺和灵组患者的控制情况明显好于对照组(P﹤0.05);诺和灵组发生低血糖率1.43%,对照组发生率12.86%,提示使用诺和灵30R安全性明显高于对照组(P﹤0.01)。结论使用胰岛素诺和灵30R治疗老年2型糖尿病安全可靠,可以有效的控制患者的血糖并减少低血糖事件的发生,应广泛推举临床使用。     

Decreased first-phase secretion of insulin may play a role in the development of insulin resistance

Decreased first-phase secretion of insulin may play a role in the development of insulin resistance. In the development of type 2 diabetes an abnormal function of the beta-cells and insulin resistance of liver, fat cells and muscle play the main role. An early sign of beta-cell damage can be the loss of first-phase insulin response. This is supposed to precede the development of insulin resistance. Decrease of first-phase secretion of insulin can induce early postprandial hyperglycaemia and hypertriglyceridaemia damaging endothelium of precapillary arterioles of the nutritive capillaries. Insulin-induced endothelium-dependent dilation of these arterioles is inhibited by high glucose and triglyceride levels preventing metabolic effect of insulin on the parenchymal cells surrounded by nutritive capillaries and leading this way to insulin resistance. Second-phase hyperinsulinaemia develops in the impaired glucose tolerance. With the progression of the disease into the type 2 diabetes, insulin secretion decreases in the second-phase, as well. Because of decrease of first-phase insulin secretion in type 2 diabetic patients, early insulin therapy could be a choice of treatment in type 2 diabetes. Results of the UKPDS suggest that insulin-treated type 2 diabetic patients are longer in the near-euglycaemic state compared to those treated by oral hypoglycaemic agents. Recent data support that early insulin therapy of type 2 diabetic patients retains their own insulin secretion capacity and results in lower haemoglobin A1c. A comparison of before-meal rapid-acting insulin analogue and bedtime NPH insulin regimens verified that rapid-acting insulin analogue decreased haemoglobin A1c compared to NPH insulin treatment in type 2 diabetes. On the basis of these data arises the possibility of the change of the attitude "Oh no, not insulin in type 2 diabetes" to the "early rapid-acting insulin analogue treatment" of these patients.     

Management of Diabetes Mellitus

Abstract

Diabetes mellitus is a common metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels resulting from an insulin deficiency (type 1 diabetes mellitus) or a combination of insulin deficiency and insulin resistance (type 2 diabetes mellitus). The chronic hyperglycemia associated with diabetes mellitus can cause damage to the eyes, kidneys, heart and peripheral circulation, resulting in substantial morbidity, premature mortality and considerable healthcare costs.In both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus, quality of glycemic control has been shown to be a major factor in the prevention of microvascular complications, and tight blood glucose control is the primary goal for all patients with diabetes mellitus.In patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus, multiple daily injections of exogenous insulin and frequent monitoring of blood glucose levels are required to achieve tight glycemic control. Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus may achieve initial glycemic control with diet and lifestyle interventions alone; however, a large percentage of patients will require pharmacological therapy, first with an oral antidiabetic agent and, ultimately, with insulin.Premixed insulin formulations, consisting of fixed ratios of short- and intermediate-acting insulins, are a convenient and effective treatment option which account for ≈40% of insulin use worldwide. Until recently, the only premixed formulations available contained varying proportions of human regular insulin and human isophane insulin suspension (NPH). However, new premixed formulations containing insulin lispro (a rapid-acting insulin analog) and insulin lispro neutral protamine suspension (NPL) [an intermediate-acting insulin analog] are now available.Insulin lispro mix75/25 (Humalog® Mix75/25?) is a premixed formulation containing 25% insulin lispro and 75% NPL which has been investigated for use in patients with type 1 and with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Administered twice daily immediately before breakfast and dinner, insulin lispro mix75/25 provides better control of postprandial blood glucose, provides similar overall glycemic control, appears to be preferred by patients and may reduce nocturnal hypoglycemia compared with a similar premixed formulation containing 30% human regular insulin and 70% NPH (human insulin 70/30; Humulin® 70/30, Novolin® 70/30). Insulin lispro mix75/25 has a rapid onset of action, allowing for administration immediately before a meal, whereas patients need to administer human insulin 70/30 30 to 60 minutes prior to meals. Insulin lispro mix75/25 also improves glycemic control in patients whose type 2 diabetes mellitus is not well controlled by oral agents.

Conclusion

Insulin lispro mix75/25 is suitable for patients wishing to use premixed insulin formulations and may offer several benefits over human insulin 70/30.

     

Glucose control guidelines: current concepts

The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) ended decades of controversy regarding the necessity of tight glycemic control for type 1 diabetes by demonstrating that glucose control using intensive insulin therapy significantly reduced long-term microvascular complications. The American Diabetes Association (ADA) guidelines empirically support the same goal of attempting to obtain normoglycemia in patients with type 2 disease; however, unlike in type 1 disease, insulin is a tertiary option, following diet, exercise, and oral agents. Emerging long-term intervention data in type 2 diabetes suggest that insulin may pose increased cardiovascular risk in this already 'at-risk' population. However, many type 2 diabetics will eventually require insulin. Clearly, more studies are warranted to assess the risks, benefits, and feasibility of improved glycemic control in type 2 diabetes. Nonetheless, two principles are clear. First, promoting blood glucose levels approaching normoglycemia is an important factor in preventing long-term microvascular complications. Second, type 2 diabetes comprises numerous metabolic conditions; therefore an integrated effort by the patient and healthcare team is required to optimize blood glucose and serum lipid levels and minimize cardiovascular risk factors.     

Effect of interferon therapy on carbohydrate metabolism in chronic hepatitis C patients]

Reversible impact of alpha-interferon on carbohydrate (CH) metabolism was observed in patients with hepatitis C treated with interferon between 1993 and 1997. Of the 32 patients 3 individuals had known to have diabetes mellitus before the treatment and 1 had impaired glucose tolerance (IGT). 28 patients proved to have normal CH metabolism before the interferon treatment. To each patients was interferon alpha was administrated in a dose 3 MU TIW. During the 6 months interferon therapy of the 3 patients treated with oral antidiabetic drug one's diabetes mellitus did not deteriorated, but 2 patients required insulin therapy. In the patient with known IGT a manifested diabetes mellitus has gradually developed. Out of the 28 patients with normal CH metabolism in 9 cases developed IGT, 19 patient's CH metabolism did not change significantly. All of the changes induced by interferon proved to be reversible.     

门诊老年糖尿病患者合并低血糖的用药选择方法探讨

目的探讨糖尿病患者合并低血糖用药的选择方法。方法回顾性分析自2009年1月～2011年7月门诊收治的老年糖尿病患者合并低血糖症105例,采用描述性方法分析病历记录、实验室血糖测得值、临床用药情况等。结果就诊过程中通过询问及记录,发现糖尿病治疗过程中由于使用磺脲类药物引发低血糖者占40.00%;胰岛素使用过量占30.47%;过度限制饮食所引发者占19.05%;其他疾病引发者占10.48%。28例低血糖症状轻者予以口服糖水以升血糖,均在6h内血糖恢复稳定;77例症状严重者立即给予10%葡萄糖500ml静脉滴注,72h恢复稳定者73例,超过72h未稳定4例,因其他系统疾病,转科治疗。结论老年糖尿病患者应合理选择降糖药物,尽量选用剂量小、半衰期短适合老年人生理功能的短效磺脲类制剂,注意个体化治疗,在做到生活、饮食规律,合理运动的同时,严密监测血糖,遵医嘱调整药物剂量。     

Thiazolidinediones--a new class of oral antidiabetic drugs

The discovery of a new class of oral antidiabetic drugs was stimulated by difficulties with the treatment currently available for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Thiazolidinediones can lower blood glucose values due to their special insulin-sensitiser effect. In this way, these drugs seem to be very effective in the treatment of type 2 diabetic patients with characteristics of metabolic syndrome. The intracellular action caused by thiazolidinediones differs markedly from that of other oral antidiabetic drugs available. Apart from antihyperglycaemic effect, thiazolidinediones have further beneficial effects in experimental diabetes which require corroboration by clinical studies. Troglitazone was the first drug which reached the market. Unfortunately, this drug was withdrawn soon due to its hepatotoxicity. Rosiglitazone proved to be much safer in clinical studies. Pioglitazone is being tested nowadays in clinical studies. Thiazolidinediones have been already listed among oral antidiabetic drugs in international therapeutical guidelines. Nevertheless, further clinical studies and experiences are needed to determine the final exact indication of thiazolidinediones for the treatment of type 2 diabetic patients.     

Combining insulins with oral antidiabetic agents: effect on hyperglycemic control, markers of cardiovascular risk and disease

Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) have an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Unfortunately, several potential barriers exist for CVD risk management in diabetes, including the need for significant lifestyle changes, potential problems with hypoglycemia, weight gain, injection tolerability, treatment complexity with current diabetes therapies and other, unmodifiable factors. Improving glycemic control may impact CVD risk. Treatment of T2DM usually starts with lifestyle changes such as diet and exercise. When these become insufficient, pharmacotherapy is required. Various oral antidiabetic drugs (OADs) are available that reduce hyperglycemia. The first line of therapy is usually metformin, since it does not increase weight and seems to have a beneficial effect on CVD mortality and risk factors. As T2DM progresses, insulin treatment becomes necessary for the majority of patients. The last few years have seen the development of long-acting, rapid-acting, and premixed insulin analog formulations. The treat-to-target algorithms of recent studies combining OADs plus insulin analogs have demonstrated that patients can reach glycemic treatment targets with low risk of hypoglycemia, greater convenience, and--with some analogs--limited weight gain vs conventional insulins. These factors may possibly have a positive influence on CVD risk. Future studies will hopefully elucidate the benefits of this approach.     

Chromium (III)-ion enhances the utilization of glucose in type-2 diabetes mellitus

INTRODUCTION: The prevalence of the type 2 diabetes mellitus is still growing. Although the occurrence of insulin resistance is quite frequent in the whole population, diabetes not always develops because for a time the compensating mechanism avoids it. In a frequent variation of type-2 diabetes the disease is not the result of an alteration in the insulin receptor or the glucose transporter, but a genetically determined defect of the postreceptorial intracellular signaling mechanism plays a role in its occurrence. There have been investigations for decades to find out more about the role of chromium (III) ions in glucose metabolism and in the prevention of type-2 diabetes. It has also been investigated if chromium substitution can prevent or treat those forms of diabetes where chromium deficiency is suspected to be in the background of the disorder. AIM: The aim of our present investigation is to test the role of chromium (III) compounds in glucose metabolism that are known from literature. The authors examined the effect of oral chromium supplementation on antidiabetic treatment. Chromium supplementation was applied for 6 months. METHODS: Before, through and after the investigation changes in the patient's carbohydrate and lipid metabolism were followed by laboratory tests. RESULTS: At the end of our examination the cholesterin level significantly, the HbA1c level close to the significant value decreased. Due to their results the authors presume that chromium (III) compounds may be effective in the treatment of patients' with decreased glucose tolerance or type-2 diabetes mellitus as a supplement to their therapy.     

Diabetes mellitus, but which type?

In three patients with an unusual presentation of diabetes mellitus, the classification of their diabetes was troublesome. An adolescent male with slightly elevated blood-glucose levels turned out to have excellent glycaemic control on sulphonylurea derivatives only. When he was 40 years of age, his diabetes was finally diagnosed as 'maturity onset diabetes of the young' (MODY). A non-obese 41-year-old man was initially diagnosed with type-2 diabetes. Therapy with oral hypoglycaemic agents was unsuccessful and he was subsequently classified as having 'latent autoimmune diabetes of adults' (LADA) based on the presence of antibodies against glutaminic acid decarboxylase. A 29-year-old man presented with severe ketoacidosis and was initially believed to have type-1 diabetes. The patient himself discontinued insulin therapy and he was eventually diagnosed as having type-2 diabetes. A careful classification may have clinical consequences. Patients with MODY3, for example, respond to sulphonylurea derivatives. In MODY2, treatment with diet alone is often sufficient. In patients with LADA, insulin therapy is the treatment of choice. The recognition of diabetes mellitus type 2 as the underlying illness in some patients who present with ketoacidosis means that these patients can be specifically treated for their basic problem, which is insulin resistance. For them, weight reduction is essential and metformin is the drug of choice as far as pharmacotherapy is concerned, but of course attention must also be given to cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension and dyslipidaemia.     

High-fat versus high-carbohydrate enteral formulae: effect on blood glucose, C-Peptide, and ketones in patients with type 2 diabetes treated with insulin or sulfonylurea

Recently, two commercial enteral formulae for diabetic patients have been made available in Spain: a high-complex-carbohydrate, low-fat formulation (HCF) and a low-carbohydrate formulation (RCF). This study compares the effects of the two enteral nutritional formulae in patients with non–insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (type 2 diabetes) treated with sulfonylurea or insulin. Fifty-two type 2 diabetes patients were randomly assigned to receive one of the two enteral formulae. Test enteral formula breakfast (250 cc) were consumed at approximately 0900 h after routine medications (insulin or oral agents) had been taken. Venous blood samples were obtained during fasting, before medication, and at 30 and 120 min after the start of the meal. The glycemic response of patients to the HCF was significantly greater than to RCF, but lower than in the sulfonyl type 2 diabetes treated groups. The incremental glucose response was within acceptable levels except in insulin treatment type 2 diabetes patients given HCF. Glucose, insulin, and C-peptide responses were higher in HCF than RCF groups. Two-factor analysis of variance on mean increments of blood glucose and C-peptide from basal levels to 30 min show the type of enteral nutrition as the main factor (P = 0.0010 and P = 0.0005, respectively). The RCF formula supplies 50.0% of energy as fat and 33.3% as carbohydrates, so it may be a ketogenic diet. It was found that both ketone bodies were higher after RCF than after HCF ingestion, but without statistical significance. We conclude that the partial replacement of complex digestible carbohydrates with monounsaturated fatty acids in the enteral formulae for supplementation of oral diet may improve glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. The long-term effects of enteral diets high in monounsaturated fatty acids need further evaluation in patients with type 2 diabetes.     

Caloric Restriction and L‐Carnitine Administration Improves Insulin Sensitivity in Patients With Impaired Glucose Metabolism

Background: Reduced circulating and tissue carnitine levels, possibly leading to impaired mitochondrial function, have been postulated to be involved in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance. However, whether L‐carnitine administration may improve insulin sensitivity in patients with impaired fasting glucose (IFG) or type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM‐2) is still controversial. The aim of the study was to explore the role of L‐carnitine supplementation in influencing insulin sensitivity. Methods: A randomized controlled study involving adult outpatients was designed. Adult patients referred to the outpatient clinic and within 10 days of the diagnosis of IFG or DM‐2 were consecutively enrolled. Exclusion criteria were concomitant antidiabetic therapy and modifications of lifestyle during the previous 4 weeks. Patients were randomly assigned to receive a hypocaloric diet for 10 days (group C; n = 8) or the same dietetic regimen in addition to oral L‐carnitine (2 g twice daily) supplementation (group LC; n = 8). Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), fasting plasma insulin levels, and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA‐IR) were assessed at the beginning and end of the study. Data were statistically analyzed using the Student t test for paired and unpaired data. Results: OGTT at 2 hours improved in both groups. Only in the L‐carnitine–supplemented group did plasma insulin levels and HOMA‐IR significantly decrease when compared to baseline values. Conclusions: Considering the role of caloric restriction in increasing the intestinal uptake of carnitine, the results suggest that oral L‐carnitine administration, when associated with a hypocaloric feeding regimen, improves insulin resistance and may represent an adjunctive treatment for IFG and DM‐2.     

Optimizing insulin use in type 2 diabetes: role of basal and prandial insulin in long-term care facilities

Approximately 25% of patients in nursing homes have diabetes, and it is the primary reason for 12% of nursing home admissions among residents 45 to 75 years of age. Glycemic control is important to reduce the risk of diabetic complications in this patient population. Management of diabetes in the long-term care setting is complicated, because many residents already have diabetic complications and other comorbidities. Data from several studies suggest that a significant number of nursing home residents receive suboptimal diabetes care. This review is intended to provide guidance for optimizing glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes in long-term care facilities. Oral antidiabetic drugs (OADs) represent first-line pharmacotherapy for diabetes. However, because of the progressive nature of type 2 diabetes, most patients will eventually require insulin. Adding a basal insulin analog, such as insulin glargine or insulin detemir, to an OAD is a simple, safe, and effective strategy for introducing insulin therapy. These long-acting insulin analogs provide effective glycemic control with a lower risk of hypoglycemia, a particular concern in the elderly, compared with NPH insulin. In patients whose insulin requirements have increased as a result of increases in post-prandial glucose excursions, prandial insulin should be added following a stepwise approach to therapy. Overall patient care and optimizing treatment of type 2 diabetes and its associated complications are vital services provided by the nursing staff at long-term care facilities.     

地特胰岛素与门冬胰岛素强化治疗2型糖尿病疗效观察

目的观察地特胰岛素联合门冬胰岛素强化治疗2型糖尿病患者的疗效。方法将118例口服降糖药物欠佳的2型糖尿病患者随机分为地特胰岛素联合门冬胰岛素组（N-D组）,诺和灵R联合诺和灵N组（N-N组）,连续治疗2周,分别于治疗前后测空腹血糖（FPG）、餐后2h血糖（2hPG）和空腹胰岛素（FINS）,并分别计算HOMA-IR和HOMA-β,记录血糖达标时间、达标日胰岛素类似物用量和低血糖发生频率。结果 N-G组与N-N组FBG、2hPG、Homa-β和Homa-IR比较均无显著性差异,P〉0.05;两组强化治疗前后组内比较FPG、2hPG、Homa-β和Homa-IR比较均为P〈0.01;而N-G组的糖达标时间、胰岛素用量和低血糖发生率均较N-N组低,P〈0.01。结论地特胰岛素联合诺和锐强化治疗可以明显改善胰岛B细胞功能,降低胰岛素抵抗,使多数口服降糖药物控制血糖欠佳的2型糖尿病患者血糖更加快速、安全达标。