It is essential to connect: Evaluating a Science Communication Boot Camp

Scientific knowledge has expanded dramatically in the 21st century. Yet, even in science where there is large consensus among the studies—evolution by natural selection, for example, or the human basis of accelerated climate change—the public and policymakers are not always in agreement with the science. To bridge this gap, scientists and educators need to connect and engage with diverse audiences with varying levels of science literacy. Communication scholars have identified several effective tactics to communicate effectively with non-specialist audiences. However, our sometimes-siloed thinking in science and higher education discourages sharing this knowledge across disciplinary lines. Furthermore, many training programs focus on educating about which communication strategies work, but they fail to provide participants with the opportunity to develop the skills required to listen effectively and respond in an engaging way. To that end, we created the Science Communication Boot Camp (SCBC) with support from an American Association for Anatomy innovations grant. The 3-day program engaged and immersed participants in training designed to develop audience-centered communication, distill scientific concepts into meaningful narratives, and connect effectively with the public, collaborators, and policymakers. Based on participant surveys at three timepoints (preworkshop, postworkshop, and 2-year follow-up), the SCBC was effective in helping participants to increase their communication skills and willingness to engage with the public and other non-specialist audiences.     

Science training for European journalists

"Immunology", it was stated recently in a leading European national newspaper, "is a complicated and obscure discipline...that immunologists don't understand much about themselves". Set against this background, Byron Waksman reports on a recent meeting*, which was attended by journalists and scientists from all over Europe, on the attitude of the general public towards science and the need for scientific training among journalists.     

Communicating science: from the laboratory bench to the breakfast table

If we are to maintain public appreciation and support for our scientific enterprise, we need to pay more attention to translating the benefits and grandeur of science into the language of broader society. Both educators and journalists have a role to play in communicating the achievements of science, but scientists must recognize that we have a responsibility to increase the availability and salience of science to the public.     

In the Know and in the News: How Science and the Media Communicate About Stem Cells,Autism and Cerebral Palsy

Stem cell research has generated considerable attention for its potential to remediate many disorders of the central nervous system including neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and cerebral palsy (CP) that place a high burden on individual children, families and society. Here we characterized messaging about the use of stem cells for ASD and CP in news media articles and concurrent dissemination of discoveries through conventional science discourse. We searched LexisNexis and Canadian Newsstand for news articles from the US, UK, Canada and Australia in the period between 2000 and 2014, and PubMed for peer reviewed articles for the same 10 years. Using in-depth content analysis methods, we found less cautionary messaging about stem cells for ASD and CP in the resulting sample of 73 media articles than in the sample of 87 science papers, and a privileging of benefits over risk. News media also present stem cells as ready for clinical application to treat these neurodevelopmental disorders, even while the science literature calls for further research. Investigative news reports that explicitly quote researchers, however, provide the most accurate information to actual science news. The hope, hype, and promise of stem cell interventions for neurodevelopmental disorders, combined with the extreme vulnerability of these children and their families, creates a perfect storm in which journalists and stem cell scientists must commit to a continued, if not even more robust, partnership to promote balanced and accurate messaging.     

The role of basic science knowledge and clinical knowledge in diagnostic reasoning: a structural equation modeling approach.

PURPOSE: To examine four theories on the role of basic science knowledge and clinical knowledge in diagnostic reasoning. METHOD: In 2000-01, the authors tested the basic science and clinical knowledge and diagnostic performances of 59 family physicians and 184 second- to sixth-year medical students at Maastricht University, The Netherlands. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. Four theoretical models were tested. In the first model only basic science knowledge is involved in diagnostic reasoning; in the second model only clinical knowledge is related to diagnostic reasoning; in the third model, clinical knowledge is related to diagnostic reasoning, but basic science knowledge is integrated in clinical knowledge; and in the fourth model, both basic science knowledge and clinical knowledge independently influence diagnostic reasoning. RESULTS: Forty-four (75%) of the family physicians and 184 (100%) of the students responded. The results indicated that the third model, which is based on the knowledge encapsulation theory, provided the best fit to the data, whereas the models that had directly related basic science knowledge with diagnostic performance did not fit the data adequately. CONCLUSION: The results generally supported the third model by Schmidt and Boshuizen of knowledge encapsulation theory suggesting that basic science knowledge is activated in expert diagnostic reasoning through its relation with clinical knowledge.     

Cancer coverage in a mainstream and Korean American online newspaper: lessons for community intervention

OBJECTIVE: Korean Americans have higher incidence of stomach, liver, and cervical cancer than most groups in CA, USA, and generally lower rates of cancer screening. To better target community interventions, we evaluated the cancer content in a leading Korean American newspaper, the Korea Daily, compared to a mainstream newspaper from the same metropolitan area, the Los Angeles (LA) Times. METHODS: Using the online versions of each newspaper for the year 2006, we counted articles mentioning cancer and evaluated the content in a random sample of 300 articles from each newspaper. Articles were categorized by relevance of cancer content and topic(s) covered. RESULTS: Although the LA Times had a higher proportion of articles mentioning cancer, the Korea Daily had more articles that primarily focused on cancer and addressed specific types of cancer. Articles in the Korea Daily were more likely to discuss prevention, while those in the LA Times more often focused on people, politics, or research. CONCLUSIONS: Smaller, ethnic newspapers may be more amenable to messages about prevention and appropriate places to target community-focused interventions. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Health practitioners should consider submitting articles to ethnic newspapers and forming partnerships with journalists to cultivate this potential.     

Role of Theory in Child Psychosocial Intervention and Research: Introductory Comments

As psychological research on sexual-minority (i.e., nonheterosexual) adolescents has increased over the past 20 years, it has become increasingly segregated from research on mainstream heterosexual youths, as if the knowledge gleaned from each population had nothing to offer our understanding of the other. To the contrary, understanding of both populations would be greatly improved by integrating investigations of sexual-minority issues into mainstream psychological research on adolescents. I outline 4 weaknesses in contemporary research on sexual-minority youth that stem from-and perpetuate-its historical isolation from mainstream developmental research: misspecification of the populations under study, lack of attention to within-group diversity, failure to test alternative explanations for-and moderators of -"sexual-minority effects," and insufficient attention to the underlying processes and mechanisms through which sexual-minority effects operate. Correcting these weaknesses has important implications for future research on how same-sex and other-sex sexuality shape adolescent psychosocial development and clinical child and adolescent problems.     

多实验平台下基因及异构体表达分析综述

转录组学研究近几年成为生命科学和医学领域的研究热点,基因表达水平测量则是转录组学研究的基础。差异基因表达分析对于了解基因功能具有重要作用,而差异异构体表达分析则能够反映选择性剪切变化的情况。当前大规模测量基因表达水平的实验平台主要包括基因芯片,以及基于高通量测序技术的RNA-Seq。首先介绍广泛使用的Affymetrix传统3'基因芯片、外显子芯片、较新的全转录组芯片,以及基于RNA-Seq技术的Illumina平台4个主流实验平台的技术原理;其次从基因表达水平计算和差异表达分析两方面介绍每个平台下一些主流数据分析方法和该研究设计的方法,分析每个平台下各数据分析方法的优劣,并进一步展示在标准数据集上一些代表性方法的对比结果。     

University of Washington and partners' program to teach middle school students about neuroscience and science careers.

The Making Connections, Making Choices program is a multidisciplinary, neuroscience-focused project aimed at middle-school students and teachers primarily throughout Washington State and also across the country. The three components--the Summer Institute (for teacher training), the Brain Power Van (to visit schools and provide neuroscience education), and the speakers' bureau (to train clinicians and researchers to provide effective class-room and public talks and to schedule engagements)--work together to foster enriching, interactive science education experiences for students and teachers. The program has been funded by the National Center for Research Resources at the National Institutes of Health since 1991. Each year the aspect of it described in this article reaches 30-35 schools, with a total of more than 1,000 students and 80 teachers, plus another 30-40 teachers each summer. The program seeks to (1) enhance middle-school students' science knowledge, (2) help science teachers improve their science knowledge and teaching, (3) increase understanding and appreciation of biomedical research, (4) increase understanding of why animals are used in research, and (5) promote students' interest in science careers, especially the interest of students from groups underrepresented in science. Periodic evaluations showed that students exposed to the program scored higher on tests of neuroscience knowledge and had more interest in health science careers than did control groups of non-exposed students. The authors argue an important aspect of the program is that it has a broad focus and is multidisciplinary.     

Pilot test of cooperative learning format for training mental health researchers and black community leaders in partnership skills

To support reduction of racial disparities in mental health diagnosis and treatment, mental health researchers and black community-based organization (CBO) leaders need training on how to engage in collaborative research partnerships. In this study, we pilot tested a series of partnership skills training modules for researchers and CBO leaders in a collaborative learning format. Two different sets of three modules, designed for separate training of researchers and CBO leaders, covered considering, establishing and managing mental health research partnerships and included instructions for self-directed activities and discussions. Eight CBO leaders participated in 10 sessions, and six researchers participated in eight sessions. The effectiveness of the training content and format was evaluated through standardized observations, focus group discussions, participant evaluation forms and retrospective pre-/posttests to measure perceived gains in knowledge. Participants generally were satisfied with the training experience and gained new partnership knowledge and skills. Although the CBO leaders were more engaged in the cooperative learning process, this training format appealed to both audiences. Pilot testing demonstrated that: 1) our modules can equip researchers and CBO leaders with new partnership knowledge and skills and 2) the cooperative learning format is a well-received and suitable option for mental health research partnership training.     

Stimulating revolutionary science with mega-cash prizes

We argue that the most ambitious science is intrinsically riskier science, more likely to fail. It is almost always a safer career strategy for the best scientists to seek to extend knowledge more modestly and to build incrementally on existing ideas and methods. Therefore, higher rewards for success are a necessary incentive to encourage top scientists to work on the most important scientific problems, ones where the solution has potentially revolutionary implications. We suggest that mega-cash prizes (measured in tens of millions of dollars) are a suitable reward for those individuals (or institutions) whose work has triggered radically new directions in science.     

Mistaken notions about natural killer cells

As natural killer (NK) cells were first described more than 30 years ago--a lifetime in recent immunological history--this is a good time to reflect on their transition from outcasts of mainstream immunology to prominent players in innate immunity. Whereas much of our existing knowledge about NK cells is taken as longstanding fact, it may be surprising to immunologists of a younger vintage, particularly those working on NK cells today, that some of this knowledge was, at least initially, unexpected. In this Perspective, I take an unconventional approach to discussing our progress in understanding NK cells.     

Erciyes University students' knowledge about AIDS: differences between students of natural and social science

The authors' goal in this study was to assess differences in knowledge about AIDS between students of natural science (NS) and social science (SS). The authors surveyed 542 students at Erciyes University in Kayseri, Turkey, regarding their knowledge of AIDS. Some differences in knowledge about AIDS (eg, regarding the virus that causes AIDS, the diagnostic test, risk factors) existed between NS and SS students. NS students were more knowledgeable about AIDS than were SS students.     

Current perceived risks of transfusion in the UK and relevance to the future acceptance of blood substitutes

Data has been gathered on the perception of risk associated with blood donation and transfusion (including the use of so-called blood substitutes) by UK general practitioners (GPs), anaesthetists, healthcare journalists and blood donors of both genders. A questionnaire survey was conducted from March-July 2000 involving (i) GPs (n = 88), (ii) anaesthetists (n = 143), (iii)journalists (n = 20), and (iv) blood donors (n = 250). Respondents rated (scale of 1-7) the general risk of blood transfusion and the risk of infection associated with blood transfusion and donation. Respondents were asked through free response questions to identify the risks they most associated with blood transfusion and the infections associated with blood transfusion and donation. They were also asked to indicate their preference for their own blood, compared to donor blood or a blood substitute and to make a choice between donated blood or a blood substitute. The percentage of respondents who preferred to receive their own blood, compared to donor blood or a suitable substitute, was 73-94%. When required to choose between donor blood or a blood substitute, there were significant (P < 0.05) differences between sample groups: anaesthetists and GPs preferred to receive a blood substitute (52-59%), whereas blood donors and journalists preferred donated blood (74-93%). These findings have clear implications for the future development and implementation of modern transfusion options, including the use and acceptability of blood substitutes as alternatives to donor blood.     

Behavior change interventions: the potential of ontologies for advancing science and practice

A central goal of behavioral medicine is the creation of evidence-based interventions for promoting behavior change. Scientific knowledge about behavior change could be more effectively accumulated using “ontologies.” In information science, an ontology is a systematic method for articulating a “controlled vocabulary” of agreed-upon terms and their inter-relationships. It involves three core elements: (1) a controlled vocabulary specifying and defining existing classes; (2) specification of the inter-relationships between classes; and (3) codification in a computer-readable format to enable knowledge generation, organization, reuse, integration, and analysis. This paper introduces ontologies, provides a review of current efforts to create ontologies related to behavior change interventions and suggests future work. This paper was written by behavioral medicine and information science experts and was developed in partnership between the Society of Behavioral Medicine’s Technology Special Interest Group (SIG) and the Theories and Techniques of Behavior Change Interventions SIG. In recent years significant progress has been made in the foundational work needed to develop ontologies of behavior change. Ontologies of behavior change could facilitate a transformation of behavioral science from a field in which data from different experiments are siloed into one in which data across experiments could be compared and/or integrated. This could facilitate new approaches to hypothesis generation and knowledge discovery in behavioral science.     

The involvement of genome researchers in high school science education.

The rapid accumulation of genetic information generated by the Human Genome Project and related research has heightened public awareness of genetics issues. Education in genome science is needed at all levels in our society by specific audiences and the general public so that individuals can make well-informed decisions related to public policy and issues such as genetic testing. Many scientists have found that an effective vehicle for reaching a broad sector of society is through high school biology courses. From an educational perspective, genome science offers many ways to meet emerging science learning goals, which are influencing science teaching nationally. To effectively meet the goals of the science and education communities, genome education needs to include several major components-accurate and current information about genomics, hands-on experience with DNA techniques, education in ethical decision-making, and career counseling and preparation. To be most successful, we have found that genome education programs require the collaborative efforts of science teachers, genome researchers, ethicists, genetic counselors, and business partners. This report is intended as a guide for genome researchers with an interest in participating in pre-college education, providing rationale for their involvement and recommendations for ways they can contribute, and highlighting a few exemplary programs. World Wide Web addresses for all of the programs discussed in this report are given in Table 1. We are developing a database of outreach programs offering genetics education () and request that readers submit an entry describing their programs. We invite researchers to contact us for more information about activities in their local area.     

Values, Practices, and the Utilization of Empirical Critiques in the Clinical Triad

Empirical science is composed of a set of mutually reinforcing values and practices. A potential difficulty arises when empirical knowledge products are disseminated to other groups with an interest in research findings. The danger is that researchers' values and practices will be deemed superior to those of other parties, and codified across different contexts without consideration of their effectiveness in achieving broader goals of science (e.g., sharing important knowledge about treating problems in living). Alternatively, understanding and respecting how the values and practices of different groups are situated in local decision-making contexts can open up creative ways for enhancing collaboration between different members of the research and clinical practice community. Taking Scheel's (this issue) thorough and well-crafted critique of research on dialectical behavior therapy as an example, we explore the way values, practices, and local decision-making contexts affect researchers', practitioners', and clinical administrators' reactions to empirical knowledge products.     

Retention of basic sciences knowledge at clinical years of medical curriculum

Aim

To explore the association between the knowledge of basic (physiology and biochemistry) and clinical sciences (internal medicine) among medical students, and determine the level of retained basic science knowledge at the fifth year of medical studies.

Methods

Medical students attending the second (n = 145, response rate 60%) or the fifth year (n = 176, response rate 73%) of medical studies at the Zagreb University School of Medicine in Croatia were given an anonymous knowledge test with 15 pairs of questions developed specifically for this purpose. Each pair consisted of a basic and clinical question, with the correct answer to the basic question explaining the physiological or biochemical background of the clinical question. Three pairs of questions were excluded from the analysis due to poor psychometric characteristics.

Results

We found statistically significant correlation between basic and clinical tests scores for both groups of students (r = 0.47, P<0.001 for the second year and r = 0.45, P<0.001 for the fifth year). 2 × 2 within-between measures ANOVA revealed a significant interaction effect for knowledge test and study year (Wilks λ = 0.55, F_{1, 319} = 262.7, P<0.001; effect size = 0.45), showing that fifth year students scored lower on the basic test than second year students but obtained higher scores on the clinical test.

Conclusion

The core basic science knowledge is lost during the clinical years of medical studies. Although remembering and understanding basic science concepts as a background of clinical statements at the clinical years does not directly affect clinical knowledge, there is a positive correlation between retained basic science concepts and clinical knowledge.Plato (1) wrote, “Right opinion, being incapable of giving a reason, is not knowledge (for how can knowledge be devoid of reason? nor again, ignorance, for neither can ignorance attain the truth), but is clearly something which is a mean between ignorance and wisdom.”Medical students build their clinical knowledge on the ground of previously obtained basic knowledge. Nevertheless, many senior undergraduate students indicate informally that they do not remember much from their basic science medical courses and that the content of those courses does not seem relevant to their later clinical work or studies (2).The portion of knowledge retained by the students seems to be the central question for medical education (3). If students are unable to use the knowledge they had once been taught, if that knowledge becomes inert and inaccessible, then teaching such knowledge becomes questionable (4-6).A loss of knowledge among senior medical students was confirmed by all the studies conducted. Watt (7) found a 21.5% decline in pre-clinical knowledge of oral biology when the same test was administered 20 months later to dental students. Krebs (8) discovered that medical students retained only 65% of the simple basic science knowledge. D’Eon (2) found a considerable knowledge loss among medical students in the three basic science courses tested and this loss was not uniform across courses (relative knowledge loss over the ten months was 18% of immunology, 52% of neuroanatomy, and 19% of physiology). Knowledge loss does not seem to be related to the marks on the final examination or the assessment of course quality by the students (2).However, longitudinal data from five medical schools across the USA confirm the strong associations between levels of performance in medical school and clinical competence in residency (9). Failure rates on certifying examinations and board certification status were significantly associated with the assessment of basic sciences knowledge during medical school education. These findings strongly refute the pessimistic view which claims that what is learned in medical school is irrelevant to the practice of medicine (9).The aim of the study was to explore the level of basic knowledge of physiology and biochemistry and how it influenced the knowledge of clinical medicine among second and fifth year medical students. Tested clinical concepts were supposed to be known to second year students as well, since they were taught as examples of applied basic science in medicine in the second year courses. Comparison of basic medical knowledge between second and fifth year medical students can illustrate whether basic science concepts are retained at the fifth year of medical studies and ascertain if senior students accept clinical knowledge with sufficient insight into causality of the processes learned.     

Academic medicine in Russia

Academic medicine, along with professionalism of the medical community in Russia underwent a remarkable evolution from the Revolution through the decline of the Soviet Union. The Soviet period brought about an enormous expansion of numbers of admissions to medical schools and a corresponding increase in the number of new physicians. Academic medical institutions were separated from institutions of higher learning in general and medical science was separated from the mainstream of science. Many of these features have been reversed in the past 14 years and re-professionalization of medicine has resumed.     

知识模式转换在医学科技创新中的作用

医学科技创新是医院赖以生存与发展的动力,医学科技创新的过程也是医学知识模式不断转换的过程,本文从知识模式转换的视角,探讨知识管理对医学科技创新的意义与作用