Cervical spine: degenerative conditions

Degenerative cervical spine disorders will affect up to two-thirds of the population in their lifetime. While often benign and episodic in nature, cervical disorders may become debilitating resulting in severe pain and possibly neurologic sequelae. Non-operative treatment continues to play an important role in treating these patients, with medications, therapy and interventional pain injections playing increasing roles in treatment. Surgical treatment including anterior and posterior decompression and fusion have been effective treatments of many cervical disorders, but may lead to significant problems including adjacent level disease. Laminotomy/foraminotomy and total disc arthroplasty may avoid some of these problems while providing similar clinical results. Ongoing clinical trials and studies are helping to define the role of these new technologies in treatment of patients with degenerative cervical disorders, although their greater benefit has yet to be proven.     

Spinal Injuries in the Overhead Athlete

Purpose of ReviewTreatment of overhead athletes requires a systematic approach that will make an accurate diagnosis, deliver effective treatment, and make timely and safe return to sport.Recent FindingsNew data has shown success rates and return to play effectiveness after different types of cervical and lumbar surgery. Cervical foraminotomy has been shown to have the highest rate and fastest return to play, but with the highest incidence of need for revision surgery. Cervical artificial disc replacement has shown promising results in the general population and is being done more commonly in elite athletes, but has an unknown risk for failure. Cervical fusion is a well-established and effective treatment, but has the longest healing time and risk for adjacent level pathology. In the lumbar spine, discectomy has a long and proven track record, fusion is rarely performed but can be effective, and artificial disc replacement is extremely rare in an elite athlete.SummaryAn effective and comprehensive approach can diagnose, treat, and return overhead athletes to competitive play.     

Cervical pain in the athlete: common conditions and treatment

In summary, it is important for physicians dealing with neck pain in an athletic population to understand the differences between serious and mild cervical injuries. This is best facilitated by a thorough understanding of the signs and symptoms of serious cervical injury, familiarity with the basic anatomy of the neck and its structures, and a working knowledge of common causes of neck pain and mechanisms of injury. All unconscious athletes should be assumed to have a serious cervical injury until proven otherwise, and preventive measures should be taken to ensure the safety of the athlete. This includes airway management with a jaw thrust only, neck stabilization, and preventing helmet removal. In the conscious athlete who has neck pain, serious cervical injury can often be ruled out with an accurate history and physical examination.In all cases of neck pain, it is imperative that the athlete be protected.This may involve removing the athlete from competition, or transporting him or her to the local emergency room. Often, this decision falls on the shoulders of the doctor in the stands. Thus, a basic understanding of the evaluation and management of neck pain in athletes is an asset for all physicians who frequent athletic events or see athletes in the office.The physician responsible for patients who have Down syndrome or rheumatoid arthritis needs to consider the increased incidence of cervical instability in these patients when evaluating for athletic participation or neck pain.     

Axial back pain in the athlete: pathophysiology and approach to rehabilitation

Back pain in athletes is common. Proper management of an athlete with back pain who is trying to return to competition must take into account the probable biomechanical contributors and incorporate these into a comprehensive rehabilitation program that moves steadily forward towards defined goals. This study will attempt to discuss pathological commonalities of low-back pain in athletes and how these can be applied to an evidence-based rehabilitation approach.     

Missed cervical spine fracture: chiropractic implications

OBJECTIVE: To discuss the case of a patient with an anterior compression fracture of the cervical spine, which had been overlooked on initial examination. CLINICAL FEATURES: A 36-year-old man was seen at a chiropractic clinic 1 month after diving into the ocean and hitting his head on the ocean floor. He chipped a tooth but denied loss of consciousness. Initial medical examination in the emergency department did not include radiography, but an anti-inflammatory medication was prescribed. Radiographs taken at the chiropractic clinic 1 month later revealed an anterior compression fracture of the C7 vertebra, with migration of the fragment noted on flexion and extension views. INTERVENTION AND OUTCOME: The patient was referred back to his medical doctor for further evaluation and management.He was instructed to wear a Philadelphia collar for 4 weeks. During this time period, he reported "shooting" pain and tingling from his neck into his arms. The patient reported resolution of his neck and arm symptoms at 2.5 months after injury. Follow-up radiographs at 6 months after injury revealed fusion of the fracture fragment with mild residual deformity. At that time, the patient began a course of chiropractic treatment. CONCLUSION: After head trauma, it is essential to obtain a radiograph of the cervical spine to rule out fracture. Chiropractors should proceed with caution, regardless of any prior medical or ancillary evaluation, before commencing cervical spine manipulation after head and neck trauma.     

Cadaveric and Ultrasonographic Validation of Needling Placement in the Cervical Multifidus Muscle

Objective

The aim of this study was to determine if a needle is able to reach the cervical multifidus during the application of dry needling or acupuncture.

Reliability of the Cervical Range of Motion Device in Measuring Upper Cervical Motion

Abstract

Limitations in upper cervical range of motion (occiput, Cl and C2) correlate highly with many pathological dysfunctions, including acute and chronic neck pain, headache, and temporomandibular joint (TMJ) pain. Although methods have been developed which provide valid and reliable measures of the middle and lower cervical spine, a quantitative method to evaluate upper cervical range of motion has not been documented in the literature thus far. The purpose of this study was to investigate the intra-tester and inter-tester reliability of the Cervical Range of Motion device (CROM) in measuring upper cervical flexion and extension. Thirty healthy volunteers, ages 23 to 37, were measured three times by three testers. Moderate to high reliability was observed for upper cervical measurements with ICC’s of .65 to .81 among testers and .89 to .97 between testers. Therefore, this method of evaluation can be used to obtain consistent quantitative measures in documenting changes in upper cervical range of motion.     

Cervical facet-mediated pain

The cervical zygapophyseal joints, or facet joints, have long been implicated as a source of neck pain. This article examines the epidemiology of pain arising from these joints and relevant anatomy and histology. An emphasis on clinical findings, examination, and imaging are presented, as well as a focus on whiplash-associated pain.     

颈椎损伤的X线与CT诊断

Objective To evaluate the diagnosis value of X-ray and CT for cervical spine injury. Methods The clinical data of 50 cases of vertebral spine injuries which were neglected due to missed diagnosis were analyzed retrospectively. Results 50 cases with cervical spine injury, among of them, 27 cases with fracture and/(or) dislocation of the lower cervical vertebrae,9 cases had atlantal fracture,8 cases had atlantoaxial dislocation and 6 cases had the axoid fracture. 24 cases showed abnormality in the lines of vertebral posterior border in the X-ray plain films. 28 cases were diagnosed instabitity,22 cases vertebral canal 0° stricture, 17 cases Ⅰ°stricture, 8 cases Ⅱ°stricture,3 cases Ⅲ° stricture were diagnosed according CT films. 10 cases traumatic cervicales disc herniation. Conclusion X-ray and CT have their own localization for injured cervical vertebraes. We must perform X-ray and CT examination in order to provide overall and reliable information for clinical diagnosis. CT is becoming an indispensible and best modality of choices in the diagnosis of atloaxoid injuries helpful for the surgeon to decide clinical management. The advantages of CT are suggested that this diagnostic modality may be the standard method for the initial evaluation of the cervical spine injury.     

X线侧位片判定颈椎损伤单侧关节突交锁

目的　通过X线侧位片判定颈椎损伤单侧关节突交锁 ,以提高对单侧关节突交锁的诊断率。方法　常规拍摄包括损伤节段上下至少两个椎体的X线侧位片。结果　在颈椎损伤单侧关节突交锁的病例中 ,由于交锁的椎体处于旋转状态 ,在侧位片上可以见到损伤节段上 (或下 )位的椎间孔。结论　X线侧位片可作为判定颈椎损伤单侧关节突交锁的最初筛选方法 ,再结合其他征象 (如斜位等 )可对单侧关节突交锁作出诊断。     

Neck pain from a spine surgeon's perspective

Through the myriad of abnormalities encountered by spine surgeons, neck pain is one of the most perplexing. The nature, onset, and location of the pain all provide information as to what the potential pain generator may be. By synthesizing data garnered from the physical examination, imaging studies, and history, a spine surgeon must formulate a differential diagnosis and treatment plan. The surgeon must determine whether the patient has cervical radiculopathy, myelopathy, or simply cervical spondylosis because the treatment of each of these is vastly different.     

Predictors for identifying patients with mechanical neck pain who are likely to achieve short-term success with manipulative interventions directed at the cervical and thoracic spine

Objective

The purpose of this study was to identify the prognostic factors for individuals with mechanical neck pain likely to experience improvements in both pain and disability after the application of an intervention including cervical and thoracic spine thrust manipulations.

Methods

Patients presenting with mechanical neck pain participated in a prospective single-arm trial. Participants underwent a standardized examination and then received a series of thrust manipulations directed toward the cervical, cervicothoracic, and thoracic spine. Participants were classified as having achieved a successful outcome at the second and third sessions based on their perceived recovery. Potential prognostic variables were entered into a stepwise logistic regression model to determine the most accurate set of variables for the prediction of treatment success.

Results

Data from 81 subjects were included in the analysis, of which 50 experienced a successful outcome (61.7%). Five variables including pain intensity greater than 4.5 points; cervical extension less than 46°; presence of hypomobility at T1; a negative upper limb tension test and female sex were identified. If 4 of 5 variables were present (likelihood ratio, +1.9), the likelihood of success increased from 61.7% to 75.4%.

Conclusions

This study identified several prognostic clinical factors that can potentially identify, a priori, patients with neck pain who are likely to experience a rapid response to the application of an intervention including both cervical and thoracic spine manipulations. However, no combination of the variables was able to dramatically increase the posttest probability.     

Restoring cervical lordosis by cervical extension traction methods in the treatment of cervical spine disorders: a systematic review of controlled trials

[Purpose] To systematically review the literature on the use of cervical extension traction methods for increasing cervical lordosis in those with hypolordosis and cervical spine disorders. [Methods] Literature searches for controlled clinical trials were performed in Pubmed, PEDro, Cochrane, and ICL databases. Search terms included iterations related to the cervical spine, neck pain and disorders, and extension traction rehabilitation. [Results] Of 1,001 initially located articles, 9 met the inclusion/exclusion criteria. The trials demonstrated increases in radiographically measured lordosis of 12–18°, over 5–15 weeks, after 15–60 treatment sessions. Untreated controls/comparison groups not receiving extension traction showed no increase in cervical lordosis. Several trials demonstrated that both traction and comparison treatment groups experienced immediate pain relief. Traction treatment groups maintained their pain and disability improvements up to 1.5 years later. Comparative groups not receiving lordosis improvement experienced regression of symptoms towards pre-treatment values by 1 years’ follow-up. [Conclusion] There are several high-quality controlled clinical trials substantiating that increasing cervical lordosis by extension traction as part of a spinal rehabilitation program reduces pain and disability and improves functional measures, and that these improvements are maintained long-term. Comparative groups who receive multimodal rehabilitation but not extension traction experience temporary relief that regresses after treatment cessation.     

The Effects of Muscle Energy Technique on Cervical Range of Motion

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine if a four week treatment period of muscle energy technique (MET) would significantly increase cervical flexion, extension, sidebending, and rotation in asymptomatic persons with limited range of motion (ROM). Eighteen volunteers qualified as subjects for the study following screening for neck ROM limitation. These subjects were then randomly assigned to either a control or MET group. A series of six, mixed, two-way analyses variance (ANOVA) were used to test for significant cervical ROM increases. The two factors examined were Group (MET vs. control) and Test (pre vs. post). Significant interactive effects for both left and right rotation were found (both F's > 4.8 and p's < 0.05) indicating a significantly greater ROM in the MET group. Trends toward significance were found for the remaining ranges of motion with the mean measures for each of the treatment groups showing an increase between pre-test and post-test. These results support MET as an effective technique for increasing cervical range of motion.     

Cervical spine mobilisation forces applied by physiotherapy students

Objectives

Postero-anterior (PA) mobilisation is commonly used in cervical spine treatment and included in physiotherapy curricula. The manual forces that students apply while learning cervical mobilisation are not known. Quantifying these forces informs the development of strategies for learning to apply cervical mobilisation effectively and safely. This study describes the mechanical properties of cervical PA mobilisation techniques applied by students, and investigates factors associated with force application.

Participants

Physiotherapy students (n = 120) mobilised one of 32 asymptomatic subjects.

Methods

Students applied Grades I to IV central and unilateral PA mobilisation to C2 and C7 of one asymptomatic subject. Manual forces were measured in three directions using an instrumented treatment table. Spinal stiffness of mobilised subjects was measured at C2 and C7 using a device that applied a standard oscillating force while measuring this force and its concurrent displacement. Analysis of variance was used to determine differences between techniques and grades, intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) were used to calculate the inter- and intrastudent repeatability of forces, and linear regression was used to determine the associations between applied forces and characteristics of students and mobilised subjects.

Results

Mobilisation forces increased from Grades I to IV (highest mean peak force, Grade IV C7 central PA technique: 63.7 N). Interstudent reliability was poor [ICC(2,1) = 0.23, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.14 to 0.43], but intrastudent repeatability of forces was somewhat better (0.83, 95% CI 0.81 to 0.86). Higher applied force was associated with greater C7 stiffness, increased frequency of thumb pain, male gender of the student or mobilised subject, and a student being earlier in their learning process. Lower forces were associated with greater C2 stiffness.

Conclusion

This study describes the cervical mobilisation forces applied by students, and the characteristics of the student and mobilised subject associated with these forces. These results form a basis for the development of strategies to provide objective feedback to students learning to apply cervical mobilisation.     

A Prospective Study of Complications of Cervical Spine Manipulation

Abstract

Complications or adverse responses to cervical spine manipulation, particularly neurovascular compromise, are well documented in the literature. However, the rate of incidence of such adverse responses in manipulative physiotherapy has not been documented, indicating a need for well-designed prospective studies to accurately determine the associated risk of these procedures. To this end, a pilot study trialling a prospective adverse response reporting system was undertaken over a three month period in New Zealand. Twenty manipulative physiotherapists were approached to participate by reporting and describing any adverse responses to cervical spine manipulation they experienced over this time. Nine manipulative physiotherapists were able to participate and reported only one minor incident, a temporary, mild exacerbation of neck pain. It was calculated that the incidence rate for this study was 0.21% per manipulation and 0.42% per patient. The sole notable problem encountered with the methodology was the moderate response rate.     

颈椎损伤的X线与CT诊断

目的探讨常规X线和CT扫描对颈椎损伤的诊断价值。方法对50例X线和CT诊断为颈椎损伤的病例进行分析。结果本组50例,受损椎体共60个。低位颈椎骨折并（或）脱位27例,寰椎骨折9例,寰枢椎脱位8例,枢椎骨折6例。X线平片显示椎体后缘联线异常24例,CT片根据脊柱三柱结构诊断不稳定骨折28例,椎管0度狭窄22例,1度狭窄17例,2度狭窄8例,3度狭窄3例。外伤性颈椎间盘脱出10例。结论对于颈椎损伤的患者,应常规行X线和CT扫描检查,以利于为临床提供更全面可靠的信息。CT能对颈椎损伤做出较全面、准确的诊断,有利于治疗方案的选择,可作为颈椎损伤临床术前诊断和治疗的影像学检查的首选方法。     

Cervical Manipulation and Vertebral Artery Injury: A Literature Review

Abstract

Understanding the risks and benefits of manipulation of the cervical spine is essential in developing effective and safe intervention strategies for patients with cervical spine pain. A review of the literature was performed to assess the effectiveness, benefits, and risks as well as the prudence of performing manipulation to the cervical spine as it relates to vertebral artery injury.     

Cervical zygapophysial (facet) joint pain: effectiveness of interventional management strategies

Diagnostic facet joint nerve blocks have been utilized in the diagnosis of cervical facet joint pain in patients without disk herniation or radicular pain due to a lack of reliable noninvasive diagnostic measures. Therapeutic interventions include intra-articular injections, facet joint nerve blocks and radiofrequency neurotomy. The diagnostic accuracy and effectiveness of facet joint interventions have been assessed in multiple diagnostic accuracy studies, randomized controlled trials (RCTs), and systematic reviews in managing chronic neck pain.

This assessment shows there is Level II evidence based on a total of 11 controlled diagnostic accuracy studies for diagnosing cervical facet joint pain in patients without disk herniation or radicular pain utilizing controlled diagnostic blocks. Due to significant variability and internal inconsistency regarding prevalence in a heterogenous population; despite 11 studies, evidence is determined as Level II. Prevalence ranged from 36% to 67% with at least 80% pain relief as the criterion standard with a false-positive rate ranging from 27% to 63%.

The evidence is Level II for the long-term effectiveness of radiofrequency neurotomy and facet joint nerve blocks in managing cervical facet joint pain. There is Level III evidence for cervical intra-articular injections.