Long-term management of cirrhosis. Appropriate supportive care is both critical and difficult

Orthotopic liver transplantation has emerged as an important treatment option for patients with advanced liver disease. However, each year the number of new cases of cirrhosis exceeds the number of livers available for transplantation by a factor of 5 to 10. This translates into long waiting lists and restrictive criteria for selecting transplant recipients. Until advances in surgical technique or biotechnology increase the availability of organs for transplantation, the majority of patients with advanced liver disease will have to be managed medically for years--perhaps indefinitely. Early consultation with a liver transplant center can be helpful. The transplant hepatologist and surgeon can help with triage decisions, guide workup, provide advice about patient care, optimize the timing of transplantation, offer specialized diagnostic and therapeutic options, and help the treating physician stay abreast of the continuous changes in this complex field. In the final analysis, however, it is often the skill and diligence of the primary care physician in diagnosing liver disease, identifying and treating correctable causes, optimizing the patient's health and nutrition, and anticipating and preventing catastrophic complications that determine whether the patient lives or dies.     

Alcohol relapse and its relationship to the lived experience of adult liver transplant recipients.

Abstinence from alcohol after liver transplantation is an important outcome for all adult liver transplant recipients to attain. Currently, there is no clear explanation for why some recipients consume alcohol after transplantation, whereas others do not, and the predictors of alcohol relapse after liver transplantation have not been clearly explained. It often is believed that nurses do not have sufficient knowledge of alcohol abuse and that addiction specialists are needed to assess alcohol relapse after transplantation. As a result, the contributions of nursing to abstinence counseling for adult liver transplant recipients are unknown. For this study, a mixed method approach was used that combined the qualitative research method known as phenomenology with statistical findings to illuminate the lived experience of adult liver transplant recipients and to discover whether a relationship exists between the recipients' lived experiences and alcohol relapse after transplantation. Five clinical themes emerged from the data, two of which had positive relationships with alcohol relapse. Nursing implications related to abstinence counseling for all adult liver transplant recipients are addressed.     

肝移植4例报告

目的 总结肝移植的临床经验.方法 对4例男性患者施行肝移植,其中2例为经典式原位肝移植,另2例为背驮式原位肝移植,行肝移植的原因分别1例为肝炎后肝硬化、3例为肝炎后肝硬化合并原发性肝癌.术后免疫抑制剂采用甲基强的松龙、他克莫司及吗替麦考酚酯(骁悉),同时采用抗乙肝免疫球蛋白(抗-HBsAg)及拉米夫定预防乙肝病毒复发.结果 4例均获治愈,已分别存活16个月、13个月、11个月和10个月.结论 肝移植是治疗终末期肝病的最有效的治疗方法.适应证选择和手术时机的正确把握,围术期的严密监测、正确处理是保证肝移植患者存活的关键.     

肝移植后的并发症

背景：原位肝移植因其移植过程复杂,易产生各种并发症,制约着肝移植手术的成功率。目的：分析肝移植后并发症发生的常见原因及预防处理措施。方法：回顾性分析176例肝移植患者中出现并发症的59例患者的临床资料,男53例,女6例,年龄25—74岁,平均（46．41±12．02）岁。原发病中乙型肝炎后肝硬化10例（合并肾衰1例）,肝硬化合并肝细胞性癌7例,胆汁性肝硬化4例,酒精性肝硬化1例,肝细胞性癌13例,胆管细胞癌1例,肝豆状核变性3例,肝功能衰竭13例,重型乙型病毒性肝炎7例（合并肾衰1例）。所有病例供、受者均符合血型相符原则。结果与结论：肝移植后发生并发症102例次,其中腹腔内出血15例,上消化道出血5例,肺部感染21例,腹腔感染5例,胆道并发症21例,慢性排斥3例,急性排斥10例,急性肾功能衰竭7例,乙肝复发3例,神经精神并发症6例,移植肝无功能4例,下腔静脉血栓形成、移植物抗宿主反应各1例。围手术期死亡24人,直接死亡原因腹腔出血6例,肺部感染6例,移植肝无功能4例,多器官功能衰竭3例,腹腔感染、移植物抗宿主、心脏骤停、胆管坏死、蛛网膜下腔出血各1例。提示重视肝移植患者围移植期的处理,改善肝功能、纠正凝血障碍、改善营养、控制感染,重视移植技术的完善和并发症的及时诊断处理,是提高肝移植成功率的关键。     

乙肝核心抗体阳性供肝在肝移植中的应用

背景：现已经证实使用anti-HBc（＋）供肝会使移植后乙肝复发的风险,但anti-HBc（＋）供肝的应用明显缓解了供肝的相对匮乏。目的：分析应用anti-HBc（＋）供肝移植后乙肝复发风险及有效的预防措施。方法：应用计算机检PubMed数据库中1994-01/2009-12关于anti-HBc（＋）供肝文章,在标题和摘要中以＂Hepatitis B core antibody;donor;liver transplantation＂为检索词进行检索。选择与anti-HBc供肝相关文章。初检得到109篇文献,根据纳入标准选择48篇文章进行综述。结果与结论：HBsAg（＋）患者接受anti-HBc（＋）供肝移植术后乙肝复发率为11%,生存率为67%～100%,与HBsAg（＋）受者接受anti-HBc（-）供肝相似。HBsAg（-）受者接受anti-HBc（＋）供肝总体感染率为19%,其中未感染过乙肝受者移植术后乙肝感染率为48%,感染过乙肝受者后感染率为15%。未感染乙肝与感染过乙肝受者移植后采取有效预防措施后感染率分别为3%,12%。采用HBIG、拉米夫定、联合用药的移植后感染率分别为19%,2.6%,2.8%。提示,采用anti-HBc（＋）供肝做为供体是安全的,尤其是用在HBsAg（＋）、anti-HBc（＋）、anti-HBs（＋）受者。而HBsAg（-）受者移植后接受拉米夫定可以有效复发乙肝感染。     

Assessment of nutritional status of patients with end-stage liver disease undergoing liver transplantation

Nutritional assessment factors (including dietary history, anthropometric and biochemical measurements, and evaluation of immunocompetence) were retrospectively reviewed in 74 patients undergoing an initial liver transplantation procedure. The patients were subdivided into four categories on the basis of type of liver disease: chronic active hepatitis (N = 24), primary sclerosing cholangitis (N = 22), primary biliary cirrhosis (N = 20), and acute or subacute hepatitis (N = 8). Our nutritional assessment data indicated that malnutrition was present preoperatively in all liver transplantation groups but that each group had distinct characteristics. The group with primary biliary cirrhosis seemed to have the best hepatic synthetic function despite extreme wasting of muscle and fat. On the basis of all criteria, the group with acute hepatitis was the most malnourished of the various disease groups. Aggressive nutritional support, which includes adequate intake of nutrients and supplementation of vitamins and trace minerals, should be encouraged for all potential liver transplant patients.     

De novo hepatitis B infection acquired during liver transplantation

Although the use of donor organs from patients negative for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) but positive for hepatitis B core antibody (HBcAb) is well known to have the potential to transmit hepatitis B to the recipient, routine screening of organ donors for HBcAb is not yet implemented in the UK. We investigated whether current organ donor screening for hepatitis B infection is effective in preventing de novo hepatitis B infection after liver transplantation. The database of the liver transplant unit at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham, was searched for all cases of de novo hepatitis B after liver transplantation between January 1982 and July 2000. Four cases were identified from a population of 1354 (0.3%) adult liver transplant recipients. In all cases, the likely source of hepatitis B in the recipient was the donated organ. De novo acquisition of hepatitis B after liver transplantation occurs within the UK. This problem is likely to be resolved by the institution of HBcAb testing in all liver donors. Continuing the current practice in the UK of incomplete donor hepatitis B testing (HBsAg serology only) can no longer be justified. De novo acquired infection has potentially life-threatening implications to the liver recipient and their contacts.     

Impact of aprotinin on blood transfusion requirements in liver transplantation

Summary. A retrospective study was carried out to ascertain the blood bank provision required to support a liver transplant programme and to assess the effect of intraoperative aprotinin on blood product requirements in liver transplant recipients with cirrhosis. Sixty patients with end-stage liver disease underwent 62 consecutive orthotopic liver transplants between October 1988 and January 1991. The total and intraoperative requirements of red cells, platelets and fresh frozen plasma (FFP) were analysed for three groups of liver transplant recipients, those without cirrhosis ( n = 15), those with cirrhosis ( n = 25) and those with cirrhosis who received intraoperative aprotinin ( n = 20). Fifteen without cirrhosis had mean total requirements of 15 units of red cells, 18 units of platelets and 16 units of FFP. Twenty patients with cirrhosis who received intraoperative aprotinin had broadly similar requirements. However, blood product requirements for 25 patients with cirrhosis were significantly greater (46 units of red cells, 41 units of platelets, 43 units of FFP, excluding the seven patients with primary biliary cirrhosis). We conclude that a liver transplant programme can be supported by a teaching hospital blood bank. The use of intraoperative aprotinin significantly reduces blood product requirements.     

Experience with artificial liver support in 16 living related liver transplant recipients.

This study was a retrospective investigation about the indication and efficacy of artifical liver support for liver transplant recipients. Apheresis was performed in 16 of 41 patients subjected to living related liver transplantation (LRLTx) as articial liver support, including plasmapheresis (PP) in 13 cases, continuous hemodiafiltration (CHDF) in 7 cases, and plasma adsorption (PA) in 2 cases. One patient with cryptogenic liver cirrhosis was subjected to PP before the LRLTx, and the result was satisfactory. On the contrary, the results of PP and CHDF for graft, respiratory, or cardiac failure were not acceptable. Only 1 patient survived despite multiple organ failure. Both PP and PA for patients with hyperbilirubinemia were effective and improved their critical conditions. We conclude that apheresis for liver transplant patients is effective to treat hyperbilirubinemia, but it is not indicated for respiratory and cardiac failure nor for hepatic failure.     

Nucleoside analogue therapy following one-year course of hepatitis B immunoglobulin in preventing hepatitis B virus reactivation after living donor liver transplantation

The combination therapy with hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) and nucleoside analogue is well tolerated for the hepatitis B recipients after liver transplantation, but its cost is an important problem in these days. Here we report the efficacy of nucleoside analogue therapy following one-year course of HBIG plus nucleoside analogue after living donor liver transplantation (LDLT). Out of 103 LDLTs, we selected 14 recipients who received the post-transplant therapy against reactivation of hepatitis B virus for more than 30 months. Those were eight patients with chronic hepatitis B, three with fulminant hepatitis, and three whose donors were positive for antibody to HB core antigen (HBc). During two days after the operation, HBIG (40,000 units) was administered, and the serum level of antibody to HB surface antigen (HBs) was maintained at around 150 IU/L for one year by monthly administration of HBIG. After one year, HBIG was withdrawn. A nucleoside analogue was administered daily from just after LDLT, and it was continued up to the present. Among the 14 patients, two recipients had recurrence of hepatitis B. Three patients, including one patient with recurrence of hepatitis B, died due to hepatocellular carcinoma or its associated cirrhosis; namely, their deaths are unrelated to hepatitis B-related diseases. The remaining 11 patients are leading normal lives. In conclusion, nucleoside analogue therapy after one-year course of HBIG plus nucleoside analogue is feasible and cost-effective in preventing HBV reactivation. But the patients are still at risk of breakthrough and some patients may need continued prophylaxis with HBIG.     

自我效能在肝移植受者社会支持与心理弹性间的中介效应

目的 探讨肝移植受者自我效能、社会支持与心理弹性的关系,为提高其心理弹性水平提供依据.方法 采用一般自我效能感量表、心理弹性量表、社会支持评定量表对某医院器官移植中心162例肝移植受者进行问卷调查.结果 肝移植受者心理弹性得分为(65.28±16.57)分,社会支持得分为(42.01±8.11)分,自我效能得分为(2....     

Chronic viral hepatitis

Both hepatitis B and hepatitis C are spread parenterally. Chronic hepatitis C is fast becoming the leading indication for liver transplantation. Most infected patients go on to develop chronic hepatitis, with approximately 20% developing liver cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma after 20 years. Standard treatment now is with a combination of alpha-interferon and ribavirin, which is successful in up to 40% of patients. A vaccine is still a remote possibility and prevention remains all-important. Despite having a successful vaccine, chronic hepatitis B remains an important cause of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Treatments for active hepatitis include alpha-interferon and the newer nucleoside analogues such as lamivudine and adefovir. In patients undergoing liver transplantation, recurrence of hepatitis B in the graft can be reduced with a combination of hepatitis B immunoglobulin and these nucleoside analogues.     

Fatigue, level of everyday physical activity and quality of life after liver transplantation.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether liver transplant recipients have a hypoactive (sedentary) lifestyle and whether the level of everyday physical activity is related to complaints of fatigue. In addition, we explored the relationship between activity level and health-related quality of life. DESIGN: Case comparison. SUBJECTS: Eight persons 6-36 months after liver transplantation with varying severity of fatigue and 8 persons without known impairments (matched for gender, age, social situation and employment). METHODS: Activity levels were assessed during 2 randomly selected consecutive weekdays with an accelerometry-based Activity Monitor. In the transplantation group, severity of fatigue (Fatigue Severity Scale) and health-related quality of life (RAND-36) were also assessed. RESULTS: Five liver transplant recipients had a hypoactive lifestyle, but there was no significant difference in activity level between the transplantation group and comparison group. Severity of fatigue was correlated (p=0.01) with both duration of dynamic activities and intensity of everyday activity (r(s)=-0.81 and -0.84, respectively). Activity level was correlated (p< or =0.05) with several domains of health-related quality of life (r(s)=0.72-0.78). CONCLUSION: As a group, liver transplant recipients were not significantly less active than comparison subjects. Activity level was related with severity of fatigue and health-related quality of life. These findings have implications for the development of interventions needed to rehabilitate persons after liver transplantation.     

肝移植受者症状经历与生存质量的相关性研究

目的了解肝移植受者在术后长期生存过程中的生存质量及其症状经历情况,探索症状经历与生存质量的相关性,为临床加强移植术后受者的随访管理,提高受者生存质量提供依据。方法对1999-2008年在四川大学华西医院肝移植中心接受原位肝移植手术的137例移植受者通过问卷方式调查其生存质量及症状经历情况。结果肝移植受者日常承受的症状平均达17种,其中疲倦乏力、失眠、情绪问题、头昏头痛、腹胀、腹泻等是最常见的不适症状,困扰着半数以上的受者。与一般人群相比,移植受者生存质量显著降低(P0.01)。多元回归分析显示,受者的症状经历、移植术后生存时间、家庭收入、社会支持情况是其生存质量的主要影响因素,其中受者的症状经历对其生存质量的影响尤为突出。结论肝移植受者在术后长期存活过程中承受着复杂的症状经历,关注受者的症状并提供积极有效的干预应是移植术后随访护理的重要内容。     

Liver transplantation

Organ transplantation offers increased survival and improved quality of life to many patients with end-stage liver disease. Major advances in this field have included better organ acquisition and preservation as well as improved intraoperative techniques and management. An additional major factor in improved survival of transplant recipients is the elevated level of care available in intensive care units. Diligent postoperative care has led to early recognition and appropriate treatment of complications that previously were fatal. The intensive care unit team, in tandem with the transplant surgical service, significantly contributes to the successful outcome of the liver transplant recipient.     

肝移植受者术后抑郁状况及影响因素的调查

目的探讨肝移植受者术后抑郁状态及影响因素。方法采用一般情况调查表、抑郁自评量表（self—ratingdepressionscale,SDS）和社会支持评定量表对42例肝移植受者在术后1个月、6个月、1年、2年和3年进行调查。结果肝移植受者术后时间越长其抑郁状态越轻,年龄和主观支持是影响肝移植受者术后抑郁状况的主要因素。结论临床和社区护理人员要注重肝移植受者术后心理状态,及时提供心理护理,充分调动肝移植受者的社会支持,以改善其抑郁状况。     

乙型肝炎相关肝病肝移植术后外周血单个核细胞和骨髓造血干/祖细胞乙型肝炎病毒X基因整合检测

目的 了解乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)X基因在HBV相关肝病肝移植受体术后外周单个核细胞(PBMC)和骨髓CD34<'+>细胞内的整合情况及其对乙肝疫苗接种的影响.方法 采集1999年6月-2005年11月25例HBV相关肝病肝移植受体的外周静脉血及其中23例的骨髓血,以密度梯度离心结合单克隆免疫磁珠分离法获取外周血单个核细...     

Care for the organ transplant recipient on the intensive care unit

All transplant recipients receive tacrolimus, mycophenolate and glucocorticoids and these drugs have many side-effects and drug-drug interactions. Common complications include surgical complications, infections, rejection and acute kidney injury. Infections as CMV and PJP can be prevented with prophylactic treatment. Given the complexity of organ transplant recipients a multi-disciplinary team of intensivists, surgeons, pharmacists and transplant specialists is essential.After heart transplantation a temporary pacemaker is required until the conduction system recovers. Stiffening of the heart and increased cardiac markers indicate rejection. An endomyocardial biopsy is performed via the right jugular vein, necessitating its preservation.For lung transplant patients, early intervention for aspiration is warranted to prevent chronic rejection. Risk of any infection is high, requiring active surveillance and intensive treatment, mainly of fungal infections.The liver is immunotolerant requiring lower immunosuppression. Transplantation surgery is often accompanied by massive blood loss and coagulopathy. Other complications include portal vein or hepatic artery thrombosis and biliary leakage or stenosis.Kidney transplant recipients have a high risk of cardiovascular disease and posttransplant anemia should be treated liberally. After postmortal transplantation, delayed graft function is common and dialysis is continued. Ureteral anastomosis complications can be diagnosed with ultrasound.     

A randomized trial of solvent/detergent-treated and standard fresh-frozen plasma in the coagulopathy of liver disease and liver transplantation

BACKGROUND: Virus inactivation of pooled fresh-frozen plasma (FFP) by the solvent/detergent (SD) method results in a loss of approximately 20 percent of factor VIII. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of SD-treated plasma in correcting the coagulopathy associated with liver disease and liver transplantation. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Forty-nine patients with coagulation deficits due to liver disease, who required FFP for invasive procedures or liver transplantation, were randomly assigned to receive either FFP or SD-treated plasma. Patients were assessed for side effects, correction of coagulopathy over 24 hours, and seroconversion for viral markers 6 to 18 months after treatment. RESULTS: In the liver disease group, equal correction of clotting factors and partial thromboplastin time was seen with FFP and SD-treated plasma, with a similar return to baseline values over 24 hours. There was greater correction of the International Normalised Ratio in patients receiving SD-treated plasma (p = 0.037), but this patient group had higher baseline values than recipients of FFP (p = 0.024). Liver transplant patients also showed equivalent correction of coagulopathy with the same dose of FFP and SD-treated plasma. The use of other blood components during transplantation was identical in the two treatment groups. No seroconversions were seen for HIV or hepatitis B or C virus. One patient who had received FFP seroconverted for human parvovirus B19. Apparent seroconversion for hepatitis A virus seen at 9 to 13 months in four other patients was probably due to detection of passively transferred antibodies, as later testing of these patients gave negative results. Minor side effects were rare in both groups. CONCLUSION: SD-treated plasma is an efficacious source of coagulation factors for patients with liver disease who are undergoing biopsy or transplantation. Assessment of seroconversion for viral markers in recipients of plasma-derived products and plasma components should include consideration of the possibility that passively transferred antibodies were detected.