流感嗜血杆菌、肺炎链球菌和卡他莫拉菌的耐药性分析

目的了解我院临床分离的流感嗜血杆菌、肺炎链球菌和卡他莫拉菌的耐药性。方法对2012年1月-2013年8月我院不同标本分离的流感嗜血杆菌、肺炎链球菌、卡他莫拉菌,依照CLSl2010版标准判断药敏结果,采用WHONET5．6软件进行数据处理和统计分析。结果2012年1月-2013年8月我院共分离流感嗜血杆菌60株（产β-内酰胺酶16株）,肺炎链球菌60株、卡他莫拉菌43株（产β-内酰胺酶36株）,除1株流感嗜血杆菌和4株肺炎链球菌自血液标本分离外,其他均来源于痰标本。流感嗜血杆菌对复方新诺明的耐药率最高60％,氨苄西林的耐药率为28．6％．对阿莫西林,克拉维酸、头孢噻肟、氧氟沙星敏感率均在90％以上。肺炎链球菌对红霉素、克林霉素、四环素耐药率分别为95．7％、95．5％、86．7％,对头孢噻肟、左氧氟沙星、青霉素的耐药率分别为O％、2．3％、8．5％。卡他莫拉菌对阿莫西林／克拉维酸、头孢呋辛、头孢克洛、头孢噻肟、氧氟沙星均呈现高度敏感（敏感率〉90％）。结论流感嗜血杆菌和卡他莫拉菌对头孢菌素类、阿莫西林／克拉维酸以及喹诺酮类抗菌药物保持高度敏感性;产β-内酰胺酶仍是上述2种细菌对氨苄西林耐药的重要耐药机制;检出氨苄西林耐药而β-酰胺酶阴性的流感嗜血杆菌的分离株,其耐药机制有待进一步研究;肺炎链球菌对红霉素、克林霉素、四环素呈高水平耐药,头孢噻肟、左氧氟沙星、青霉素、阿莫西林是治疗肺炎链球菌所致感染的首选抗菌药物。对这些苛养菌造成的感染及其耐药性席当引起重视．临床廊根据具体的药物敏感试聆结果来指导用药以减少耐药菌株的产牛．     

2005-2006年我国九家教学医院分离的常见呼吸道病原菌的耐药监测研究

目的调查2005-2006年中国社区呼吸道常见病原菌的耐药性。方法收集2005年1月—2006年9月全国9家医院社区呼吸道感染患者中分离的417株肺炎链球菌、208株流感嗜血杆菌、76株卡它莫拉菌和66株A群β溶血链球菌。琼脂稀释法测定莫西沙星等10种抗菌药物的最低抑菌浓度（MICs）。结果全国9家医院，青霉素中介的肺炎链球菌（PISP）为23．0％，青霉素耐药的（PRSP）为24．5％。来自儿童的肺炎链球菌对青霉素的敏感性明显低于成人组（30．6％vs．64．5％，P〈0．001）。成人组中，上海瑞金医院PISP和PRSP明显高于其他8家医院（PISP46．7％vs．15．3％，40．0％vs．17．3％，P=0．002）。青霉素对417株肺炎链球菌的MIC范围为0．008～4μg／ml。PRSP对头孢克洛、头孢丙烯、阿莫西彬克拉维酸和头孢曲松的敏感性分别为2．9％、2．9％、53．9％、58．8％，未发现对莫西沙星和左氧氟沙星不敏感的PRSP。19．2％的流感嗜血杆菌和92．1％的卡它莫拉菌产生β内酰胺酶。流感嗜血杆菌对头孢克洛、头孢丙烯的敏感性（88．9％、92．3％）低于其对阿莫西彬克拉维酸、头孢曲松、阿奇霉素、左氧氟沙星、莫西沙星的敏感性（99．5％～100％）。卡它莫拉菌对上述药物的敏感性为92．1％～100％。9家医院流感嗜血杆菌β内酰胺酶的发生率最高的是杭州（41．9％）、广州（37．5％），其次是上海（26．3％～29．6％）、武汉（13．0％），最低的是北京和沈阳（≤3．3％）；成人组流感嗜血杆菌的产酶率高于儿童组（22．1％vs．11．1％，P〈0．05）。未发现对青霉素耐药的A群β溶血链球菌。肺炎链球菌、A群β溶血链球菌对阿奇霉素耐药率高于75％。莫西沙星对肺炎链球菌、A群β溶血链球菌的MICs比左氧氟沙星低4～8倍。结论不同年龄组、不同地区肺炎链球菌和流感嗜血杆菌的耐药性均有差异。革兰阳性球菌对大环内酯类的高耐药性值得关注，莫西沙星对呼吸道病原菌有优秀的抗菌活性。     

2000～2002年患儿呼吸道致病菌的耐药性研究

目的　研究 2 0 0 0～ 2 0 0 2年上海地区患儿呼吸道流感嗜血杆菌、肺炎链球菌及卡他莫拉菌感染情况 ,肺炎链球菌的血清分型 ,3种致病菌对抗菌药物的耐药情况。方法　细菌的生化鉴定采用API鉴定系统 ,肺炎链球菌血清分型采用荚膜肿胀试验 ,β内酰胺酶测定采用头孢硝噻酚试验 ,抗生素敏感试验采用浓度梯度扩散法及琼脂扩散法。结果　流感嗜血杆菌持续 3年位居呼吸道致病菌首位 ,对氨苄西林素耐药率接近 2 0 %。卡他莫拉菌及肺炎链球菌分离率呈增加趋势 ,其中 17 2 %流感嗜血杆菌及 95 1%卡他莫拉菌 β内酰胺酶阳性。 72 7% β内酰胺酶阳性卡他莫拉菌对氨苄西林耐药。检测到 11种肺炎链球菌血清型 ,19F及 2 3F为主要血清型 ,青霉素耐药菌株 (PRSP)占 4 2 %。结论　流感嗜血杆菌、卡他莫拉菌及肺炎链球菌已成为上海地区患儿呼吸道主要院外感染致病菌。流感嗜血杆菌、肺炎链球菌感染对青霉素类抗生素已产生不同程度的耐药 ,19F、2 3F是本地区肺炎链球菌主要血清型。     

头孢丙烯对5种儿童感染常见病原菌的抗菌活性

目的观察头孢丙烯等口服抗生素对5种儿童社区获得性感染常见致病菌的体外抗菌活性.方法选取近年北京儿童医院临床分离的金葡菌、化脓性链球菌、肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌和卡他莫拉菌菌株,采用E试验法检测其对头孢丙烯、头孢克洛、头孢地尼等抗生素的敏感性.结果头孢丙烯对所检测菌株的MIC90值分别是：甲氧西林敏感金葡菌0.75 mg/L;化脓性链球菌0.023 mg/L;肺炎链球菌青霉素敏感株0.094 mg/L,青霉素耐药株12 mg/L;β内酰胺酶阴性流感嗜血杆菌2mg/L,β内酰胺酶阳性16 mg/L;β内酰胺酶阴性卡他莫拉菌0.75 mg/L,β内酰胺酶阳性2 mg/L.PRSP株对头孢丙烯耐药率为61.9%,流感嗜血杆菌β内酰胺酶阳性株中占15.8%.结论头孢丙烯对金葡菌、化脓性链球菌、青霉素敏感肺炎链球菌、β内酰胺酶阴性卡他莫拉菌有良好抗菌作用;对β内酰胺酶阳性流感嗜血杆菌的抗菌活性低于头孢地尼;青霉素耐药肺炎链球菌株对头孢丙烯有较高的耐药率.     

头孢地尼和头孢克洛对523株呼吸道分离菌体外抗菌活性比较

目的：研究头孢地尼和头孢克洛对呼吸道常见分离菌的体外抗菌活性。方法：采用琼脂稀释法测定头孢地尼和头孢克洛对523株临床分离株的最低抑菌浓度(MIC)，E test法测定青霉素对肺炎球菌的MIC，用Nitrocefin测试细菌的β内酰胺酶，用纸片确证法检测大肠埃希菌和肺炎克雷伯菌的超广谱β内酰胺酶(ESBLs)，用WHONET5分析试验结果。结果：523株临床分离株对头孢地尼的敏感率范围为91．3％～100．0％，MIC50和MIC90范围分别为0．032～0．25mg／L和0．064～1mg／L，对头孢克洛的敏感率范围为82．6％～100．0％，MIC50，和MIC90范围分别为0．25～4mg／L和1～16mg／L。此外，30株青霉素中度敏感肺炎链球菌(PISP)对头孢地尼和头孢克洛的敏感率分别为66．7％和46．7％。产ESBLs的54株大肠埃希菌和51株肺炎克雷伯菌及8株青霉素耐药的肺炎链球菌(PRSP)对这2种头孢菌素的耐药率均为100％。结论：对青霉素敏感的肺炎链球菌、甲氧西林敏感的金黄色葡萄球菌、流感嗜血杆菌、卡他莫拉菌、β溶血链球菌，非产ESBLs的大肠埃希菌和肺炎克雷伯菌，头孢地尼比头孢克洛有较高的抗菌活性和较低的MIC值。对PISP头孢地尼比头孢克洛有较好的抗菌活性，产ESBLs的大肠埃希菌和肺炎克雷伯菌及PRSP，对两者均耐药。     

2016年中国多中心社区成人患者呼吸道3种常见临床分离菌药物敏感性测定

目的调查2016年全国16所医院社区成人患者呼吸道3种常见临床分离菌的耐药性。方法收集2016年1-12月全国16所医院分离的591株社区成人患者呼吸道分离菌,其中肺炎链球菌298株,流感嗜血杆菌222株,卡他莫拉菌71株。采用琼脂稀释法和肉汤微量稀释法测定不同抗菌药物对这3种菌的最低抑菌浓度。结果按照肺炎链球菌口服青霉素的折点判定标准,62.8%(187株)的肺炎链球菌为青霉素不敏感菌株(PNSP)。肺炎链球菌对大环内酯类的耐药率超过85.9%(256株),对口服头孢菌素的耐药率为54.7%~64.1%(163株~191株),对左氧氟沙星和莫西沙星的敏感率分别为96.3%(287株)和97.3%(290株)。PNSP株对头孢曲松、阿莫西林-克拉维酸、头孢克洛、头孢呋辛的耐药率显著高于青霉素敏感菌株(PSSP)。流感嗜血杆菌对头孢克洛、甲氧苄啶-磺胺甲噁唑和氨苄西林的敏感率分别为33.8%、33.8%和42.8%,对其余受试抗菌药物的敏感率均超过60%;β内酰胺酶阳性检出率为35.6%(79/222),且β内酰胺酶阳性菌株对氨苄西林、克拉霉素、氯霉素和四环素的耐药率显著高于β内酰胺酶阴性株。卡他莫拉菌对除克林霉素、阿奇霉素和克拉霉素外的抗菌药物都表现出较高的敏感性。结论肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌和卡他莫拉菌对受试的大环内酯类和口服头孢菌素类耐药率高,但左氧氟沙星和莫西沙星对肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌和卡他莫拉菌仍具有很高的抗菌活性,细菌耐药率低。     

头孢丙烯及其他4种抗生素对社区获得性呼吸道感染病原菌体外抗菌活性比较

目的 :调查头孢丙烯及其他 4种抗生素对社区获得性呼吸道感染细菌的体外抗菌活性。方法 :肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌和卡他莫拉菌用全自动细菌分析系统的革兰阳性菌鉴定卡GPI、奈瑟及嗜血杆菌鉴定卡NHI做最终鉴定。药物敏感性试验采用Etest方法测定MIC。结果 :共计测定了 15 5株肺炎链球菌、97株流感嗜血杆菌、2 0株卡他莫拉菌、12株苯唑西林敏感的金黄色葡萄球菌 ,19株 β 溶血链球菌的药物敏感性试验。结果表明肺炎链球菌对 5种常用抗生素的敏感率分别为 :头孢丙烯 90 .3%、头孢克罗 85 .2 % ,阿奇霉素 2 5 .8%、青霉素 80 .6 %、阿莫西林 克拉维酸为 94 .2 %。流感嗜血杆菌对头孢丙烯和头孢克罗敏感率均为 97.9%。结论 :头孢丙烯对社区获得性呼吸道感染的 5种主要病原菌均显示了很高的体外抗菌活性。     

2004-2005年中国社区获得呼吸道感染常见病原菌耐药性研究

目的调查中国6所教学医院2004--2005年分离的社区获得呼吸道感染常见病原菌的耐药性。方法收集2004年7月-2005年3月全国6个地区6所医院社区获得呼吸道感染患者中分离的510株肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌、卡他莫拉菌、p溶血链球菌及MSSA、非产ESBLs的肺炎克雷伯菌和大肠埃希菌，以琼脂稀释法测定头孢泊肟等9种抗菌药物的MIC。结果肺炎链球菌中，青霉素敏感肺炎链球菌（PSSP）、青霉素中介肺炎链球菌（PISP）、青霉素耐药肺炎链球菌（PRSP）对头孢泊肟的敏感率分别为98．9％、42．2％、6．4％。肺炎链球菌对莫西沙星的敏感率为100％；对米诺环素的敏感率为94．6％；对阿奇霉素的敏感率仅为10．7％；流感嗜血杆菌、MSSA、非产ESBL的肺炎克雷伯菌和大肠埃希菌对头孢泊肟、头孢丙烯、头孢克洛、莫西沙星和米诺环素的敏感率在51．3％～100％。结论呼吸道病原菌特别是肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌的耐药率与往年监测结果相比较呈增加趋势；头孢泊肟对呼吸道病原菌的抗菌活性优于头孢丙烯和头孢克洛。     

苛养菌在下呼吸道感染患者中的分布与耐药性分析

目的对下呼吸道感染患者苛养菌的分布及抗菌药物耐药性进行分析,为临床合理用药提供依据。方法收集2013年1月至2016年10月于该院门诊、住院部就诊的下呼吸道感染患者痰标本18 313例,对分离到的苛养菌进行药敏试验。结果共分离到苛养菌2 070株,主要为肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌、卡他莫拉菌。流感嗜血杆菌和肺炎链球菌主要见于儿童患者,药敏试验显示头孢噻肟、头孢曲松、阿莫西林/克拉维酸耐药率均15%,对复方磺胺甲噁唑、四环素耐药率较高,均76%。结论头孢噻肟、头孢曲松、阿莫西林/克拉维酸等抗菌药物可用于治疗由苛养菌引起的下呼吸道感染,治疗过程中应注意监测抗菌药物耐药性变化,依据药敏试验结果合理选择、调整用药,防止耐药菌株的产生。     

2013～2016年四川省儿童患者流感嗜血杆菌和卡他莫拉菌耐药性分析

目的 了解2013～2016年四川省儿童患者临床分离流感嗜血杆菌和卡他莫拉菌的耐药性变迁,为临床抗菌药物合理利用提供一定的参考依据。方法 收集2013～2016年四川省耐药监测报告的儿童患者所分离的流感嗜血杆菌和卡他莫拉菌的感染数据,实验结果采用WHONET5.6软件进行耐药率分析。结果 4年间,儿童流感嗜血杆菌检出率呈上升趋势:2013年为8.95%,2016年上升至16.66%; 儿童卡他莫拉菌的检出率呈上升趋势,2013年为4.16%,2016年上升至6.34%。15 896株儿童流感嗜血杆菌对氨苄西林耐药率最高,2016年为71.6%; 对头孢克洛的上升趋势更明显,由2013年的26.1%上升至2016年的59.5%,增幅为33.4%; 对阿奇霉素不敏感率上升,由2013年的8.3%上升至2016年的25%,对头孢曲松、莫西沙星的不敏感率呈下降趋势,且对头孢曲松、头孢噻肟、左氧氟沙星、莫西沙星的敏感率各年均高于90%。与分离自所有患者的流感嗜血杆菌耐药率相比,分离自儿童患者流感嗜血杆菌耐药率更高,儿童分离株和总菌株对阿奇霉素的不敏感率呈逐年上升趋势,分别由2013年的8.3%,10.2%升至2016年的25%,22.1%。5 625株卡他莫拉菌对阿莫西林/克拉维酸、头孢曲松、头孢噻肟、左氧氟沙星、环丙沙星敏感率高,大于90%; 对复方新诺明的耐药率逐年增高,由2013年的15.1%上升至59.1%。结论 流感嗜血杆菌对第三代头孢菌素类敏感率大于90%,可作为临床首选药物,而对氨苄西林和复方新诺明的耐药率已上升至70%左右,不适于选用。儿童卡他莫拉菌对复方新诺明的耐药率上升至59.1%,对其它测试药物耐药率变化较小。     

Determination of creatine kinase isoenzyme MB activity in serum using immunological inhibition of creatine kinase M subunit activity. Activity kinetics and diagnostic significance in myocardial infarction.

This is a new method for the determination of creatine kinase isoenzyme MB activity in serum. The method uses direct activity measurement of creatine kinase B subunit activity after blocking of CK-M subunit activity by inhibiting antibodies. The test takes no longer than 15 min. The method yields an intra-serial C.V. of 2.0-12.9%, and a C.V. from day to day of 5.5%. The detection limit is 3.4 U/l creatine kinase MB. In the 95 cases with proven myocardial infarction several types of creatine kinase MB activity kinetics could be determined. The percentage of creatine kinase MB of peak CK-total is 6-25%, with a mean of 11.1%. The amount of creatine kinase MB with respect to total CK activity after reinfarction is higher than the amount after initial infarction.     

Dissociable correlates of two classes of retrieval processing in prefrontal cortex

Although substantial evidence suggests that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) implements processes that are critical for accurate episodic memory judgments, the specific roles of different PFC subregions remain unclear. Here, we used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging to distinguish between prefrontal activity related to operations that (1) influence processing of retrieval cues based on current task demands, or (2) are involved in monitoring the outputs of retrieval. Fourteen participants studied auditory words spoken by a male or female speaker and completed memory tests in which the stimuli were unstudied foil words and studied words spoken by either the same speaker at study, or the alternate speaker. On "general" test trials, participants were to determine whether each word was studied, regardless of the voice of the speaker, whereas on "specific" test trials, participants were to additionally distinguish between studied words that were spoken in the same voice or a different voice at study. Thus, on specific test trials, participants were explicitly required to attend to voice information in order to evaluate each test item. Anterior (right BA 10), dorsolateral prefrontal (right BA 46), and inferior frontal (bilateral BA 47/12) regions were more active during specific than during general trials. Activation in anterior and dorsolateral PFC was enhanced during specific test trials even in response to unstudied items, suggesting that activation in these regions was related to the differential processing of retrieval cues in the two tasks. In contrast, differences between specific and general test trials in inferior frontal regions (bilateral BA 47/12) were seen only for studied items, suggesting a role for these regions in post-retrieval monitoring processes. Results from this study are consistent with the idea that different PFC subregions implement distinct, but complementary processes that collectively support accurate episodic memory judgments.     

俯卧位通气对高海拔地区肺复张治疗无效急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者氧合的影响

目的 探讨俯卧位通气对高海拔地区肺复张术(RM)治疗无效急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)患者的治疗作用.方法 从海拔2260m的地区医院筛选RM治疗无效的41例ARDS患者[平均氧合指数( PaO2/FiO2)较RM前升高＜20％视为RM无效],依不同病因分为肺内源性ARDS组(ARDSp组)和肺外源性ARDS组(ARDSexp组),每组再按信封法随机分为俯卧位组和仰卧位组,即ARDSp俯卧位组(11例)、ARDSp仰卧位组(9例)、ARDSexp俯卧位组(10例)、ARDSexp仰卧位组(11例).在通气前及通气1、2、3、4h监测动脉血氧分压( PaO2)、PaO2/FiO2、静态顺应性(Cst)、气道阻力(Raw)的变化.结果 通气lh时,ARDSexp俯卧位组PaO2/FiO2( mm Hg,l mm Hg=0.133 kPa)即较通气前显著升高(157.4±40.6比129.3±48.7,P＜0.05),并随通气时间延长呈持续增高趋势,4h达峰值(219.1 ±41.1);且ARDSexp俯卧位组通气3h内PaO2/FiO2较其他3组显著增高,另3组间则差异无统计学意义.ARDSp俯卧位组、ARDSexp俯卧位组通气4h时PaO2/FiO2均较相应仰卧位组显著增高(208.8±39.7比127.4±47.1,219.1±41.1比124.9±50.8,均P＜0.05).4组通气前后Cst无显著改变,各组间差异也无统计学意义.ARDSp俯卧位组通气4h时Raw(cmH2O·L-1·s-1)较通气前显著降低(6.8±1.7比10.7±1.8,P＜0.05),且明显低于其他3组;其他3组各时间点Raw组内及组间比较差异均无统计学意义.结论 俯卧位通气作为ARDS机械通气重要策略之一,可以改善RM无效高原ARDS患者的氧合,为抢救患者赢得宝贵的时间.     

Digital imaging among medical facilities

The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) in the USA operates a network of 172 medical centres which all utilize a hospital information system (HIS) which has been developed and is currently maintained by the VA. During the past several years, an image management and communication module has been developed, installed and clinically utilized at the Washington DC and Maryland VA Medical Centres. This image management and communication system, referred to as the decentralized hospital computer program (DHCP) imaging system, is fully integrated with a commercial picture archiving and communication system (PACS). The system is utilized to capture, archive, and display all images generated within the hospital including radiology, nuclear medicine, pathology, endoscopy, bronchoscopy, and dermatology, intraoperative photographs, ECG data, and a limited number of paper documents. The ultimate goal of the project is to have all patient text and image data available at any clinical workstation to any authorized user anywhere within the network of medical centres. Clinical requirements for an imaging workstation include ease of use, rapid and reliable access to the complete set of patient information, and images which are of acceptable quality to meet the requirements of the user and the subspecialty. Patient confidentiality and data security must be safeguarded at all times. Integration of the images with the remainder of the patient's database was found to be critical to the success of the project. The experience at the Washington and Maryland facilities suggests that an imaging system that is successfully integrated with a hospital information system can provide substantial clinical and economic benefits both within and among medical centres. Clinical acceptance and utilization of the system has been excellent, particularly in diagnostic radiology where DHCP Imaging has been interfaced to a commercial PAC system. Based upon this initial experience, the VA has begun to deploy the system throughout its large network of medical centres.     

Myocardial elastography at both high temporal and spatial resolution for the detection of infarcts

Myocardial elastography is a novel method for noninvasively assessing regional myocardial function, with the advantages of high spatial and temporal resolution and high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In this paper, in-vivo experiments were performed in anesthetized normal and infarcted mice (one day after left anterior descending coronary artery [LAD] ligation) using a high-resolution (30 MHz) ultrasound system (Vevo 770, VisualSonics Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada). Radiofrequency (RF) signals of the left ventricle (LV) in longitudinal (long-axis) view and the associated electrocardiogram (ECG) were simultaneously acquired. Using a retrospective ECG gating technique, 2-D full field-of-view RF frames were acquired at an extremely high frame rate (8 kHz) that resulted in high-quality incremental displacement and strain estimation of the myocardium. The incremental results were further accumulated to obtain the cumulative displacements and strains. Two-dimensional and M-mode displacement images and strain images (elastograms), as well as displacement and strain profiles as a function of time, were compared between normal and infarcted mice. Incremental results clearly depicted cardiac events including LV contraction, LV relaxation and isovolumetric phases in both normal and infarcted mice, and also evidently indicated reduced motion and deformation in the infarcted myocardium. The elastograms indicated that the infarcted regions underwent thinning during systole rather than thickening, as in the normal case. The cumulative elastograms were found to have higher elastographic SNR (SNR(e)) than the incremental elastograms (e.g., 10.6 vs. 4.7 in a normal myocardium, and 6.0 vs. 2.4 in an infarcted myocardium). Finally, preliminary statistical results from nine normal (m = 9) and seven infarcted (n = 7) mice indicated the capability of the cumulative strain in differentiating infracted from normal myocardia. In conclusion, myocardial elastography could provide regional strain information at simultaneously high temporal (>/=0.125 ms) and spatial ( approximately 55 microm) resolution as well as high precision ( approximately 0.05 microm displacement). This technique was thus capable of accurately characterizing normal myocardial function throughout an entire cardiac cycle, at the same high resolution, and detecting and localizing myocardial infarction in vivo.     

Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Morphine

Morphine, the most widely used mu-opioid analgesic for acute and chronic pain, is the standard against which new analgesics are measured. A thorough understanding of the pharmacokinetics of morphine is required in order to safely and effectively use this analgesic in a wide variety of patients with different levels of organ function. A MEDLINE search was conducted to identify literature published between 1966 and January 2002 relevant to the pharmacokinetics of morphine. These publications were reviewed and the literature summarized regarding unique and clinically important elements of morphine disposition relative to its parenteral administration (including intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, epidural and intrathecal administration), absorption profile (immediate release, controlled release, and sublingual/buccal, and rectal administration), distribution, and its metabolism/ excretion. Special populations, including infants, elderly, and those with renal/liver failure, have a unique morphine pharmacokinetic profile that must be taken into account in order to maximize analgesic efficacy and reduce the risk of adverse events.