Home Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition

While the history of nutrition support dates to the ancient world, modern home parenteral and enteral nutrition (HPEN) has been available since the 1960s. Home enteral nutrition is primarily for patients in whom there is a reduction in oral intake below the amount needed to maintain nutrition or hydration (i.e., oral failure), whereas home parenteral nutrition is used for patients when oral-enteral nutrition is temporarily or permanently impossible or absorption insufficient to maintain nutrition or hydration (i.e., intestinal failure). The development of home delivery of these therapies has revolutionized the field of clinical nutrition. The use of HPEN appears to be increasing on a global scale, and because of this, it is important for healthcare providers to understand all that HPEN entails to provide safe, efficacious, and cost-effective support to the HPEN patient. In this article, we provide a comprehensive review of the indications, patient requirements, monitoring, complications, and overall process of managing these therapies at home. Whereas some of the information in this article may be applicable to the pediatric patient, the focus is on the adult population.     

Changes in the Gastrointestinal Tract during Enteral or Parenteral Feeding

Intestinal adaptation, in terms of increasing intestinal length and weight, usually occurs rapidly after small-bowel resection. However, this response depends on provision of enteral nutrients. If total parenteral nutrition without enteral feeding is prolonged, hypoplasia of the intestinal mucosa results. Adaptation is probably mediated through the presence of luminal nutrients, particularly glutamine, which is preferentially used by the intestine. However, systemic hormonal factors, possibly gastrin, cholecystokinin, and glucagon, also influence intestinal adaptation. Thus, in the management of short-bowel syndromes, enteral nutrition should be added to total parenteral nutrition as soon as possible.     

肠内外营养在妊娠剧吐治疗中的应用

妊娠剧吐不利于母亲和胎儿的健康,提供足够的营养支持是治疗的主要措施。本文简要介绍近年肠内外营养在妊娠剧吐治疗中的应用情况,旨在为正确选择何种营养途径提供新的思路。     

胰十二指肠切除术后患者临床营养的护理

目的总结胰十二指肠切除术后患者肠外营养（PN）和肠内营养（EN）的护理体会。方法回顾性分析了57例接受胰十二指肠切除术患者的临床资料，所有患者均于术前接受中心静脉置管，术中行空肠造瘘，术后给予PN和EN支持。结果PN中位时间为8天（5～24天），EN中位时间为21天（5～69天），平均术后肛门排气时间（72．5±19．8）小时，术后住院的中位时间为24天（17～74天）。57例患者中，1例于围手术期死亡，2例因严重腹胀、腹泻中止EN；41例出现腹胀，17例发生腹泻；中心静脉导管脱出和堵塞各2例，空肠造瘘未出现导管并发症；29例出现糖代谢严重异常，2例伤口裂开，19例次发生术后感染。结论胰十二指肠切除术后需要联合PN和EN，治疗中应坚持无菌配液、严格管路护理、注意血糖变化和加强心理治疗。     

消化道恶性肿瘤术后早期肠内与肠外营养治疗的比较

目的探讨消化道恶性肿瘤术后早期肠内营养(EEN) 肠外营养(PN)可行性,并将其与完全胃肠外营养(TPN)对患者营养状况和免疫功能的影响进行比较。方法将2001年10月～2003年3月在本院普外科行择期消化道恶性肿瘤手术患者随机分为EEN PN组(22例)和TPN组(24例),于术后24h开始营养治疗,他们在获得能量与氮量方面差异无显著性。术前、术后第1、3、7天测定血前白蛋白(PA)、白蛋白(ALB)和血色素(Hb)水平;术前、术后第7天测定血IgA、IgG、IgM、T淋巴细胞亚群CD3、CD4、CD8及CD4/CD8水平;术后第1～7天每日测定氮平衡(NB)。比较两组上述指标在术后的差异。结果两组间在术前、术后第1、3、7天测定的血PA、ALB、Hb及术后第1～7天测定的NB比较,差异均无显著性(P>0.05)。术后第7天EEN PN组CD3、CD4水平明显高于TPN组(P<0.05熏P<0.01),而两组在CD8及CD4/CD8的差异无显著性(P>0.05)。术后第7天EEN PN组IgM明显高于TPN组(P<0.05),而两组在IgA、IgG的差异无显著性(P>0.05)。结论EEN PN是腹部术后安全有效的营养途径。由于EEN PN在改善免疫功能方面明显优于TPN,因此它应成为消化道肿瘤患者术后首选的营养方式。     

消化道术后肠内营养与肠外营养联合应用与单纯肠外营养的比较

目的 探讨消化道恶性肿瘤术后早期肠内营养（EN）和肠外营养（PN）联合应用对患者恢复的影响，并与完全胃肠外营养（TPN）进行比较。方法 将2002年1月-2004年3月择期行消化道恶性肿瘤手术的患者65例随机分为二组：EN-PN组（35例）和TPN组（30例），于术后24小时开始营养治疗。分别于术前和术后第7天测定血清白蛋白（ALB）、前白蛋白（PA）、转铁蛋白（TFN）及白细胞介素6（IL-6）、肿瘤坏死因子α（TNFα）水平，同时测定血清内毒素水平和尿乳果糖/甘露醇（L/M）评价肠黏膜通透性，测定血清IgA、IgG、IgM、CD4、CD8及CD4/CD8评价免疫功能，比较二组患者感染等并发症的发生率和平均住院时间。结果 术后第7天，EN-PN组的尿L/M、血清内毒素、IL-6及TNFα水平均明显低于TPN组（P〈0．05），而EN-PN组的IgG及CD4/CD8水平均明显高于TPN组（P〈0．05），EN-PN组TFN及PA明显高于TPN组（P〈0．05），EN-PN组患者感染并发症和住院时间亦明显降低（P〈0．01）。结论 消化道恶性肿瘤患者术后早期应用肠内和肠外营养相结合的营养方式是安全有效的，可提高患者的免疫功能，促进患者恢复。     

早期肠内营养和肠外营养支持重型颅脑损伤的效果观察

目的探讨早期营养支持对重型颅脑损伤患者营养状况的效果影响。方法回顾性分析我院2004年1月～2008年10月间收治的重型颅脑损伤患者38例,随机分为肠内营养加肠外营养支持组(观察组)19例和全肠外营养支持组(对照组)19例。观察组早期肠内营养(enteral nutrition,EN)和肠外营养(parenteral nutrition,PN)结合,10天后转为全肠道营养,对照组10天内行全肠外营养支持,观察血糖、血浆白蛋白、淋巴细胞计数,并发症发生率及预后。结果观察组能获得充足的能量和蛋白质合成物,1周时的血糖控制程度、血浆白蛋白及外周血淋巴细胞总数优于对照组(P<0.05),观察组并发症少于对照组。观察组10天后病死率为(15.79%)明显低于对照组(31.58%)。结论重型颅脑损伤行早期肠内营养和肠外营养结合符合病人的病理、生理要求,能使该类病人营养状况和生存率提高。     

早期肠内营养和肠外营养支持重型颅脑损伤的效果观察

目的探讨早期营养支持对重型颅脑损伤患者营养状况的效果影响。方法回顾性分析我院2004年1月-2008年10月间收治的重型颅脑损伤患者38例,随机分为肠内营养加肠外营养支持组（观察组）19例和全肠外营养支持组（对照组）19例。观察组早期肠内营养（enteral nutrition,EN）和肠外营养（parenterl nutrition,PN）结合,10天后转为全肠道营养,对照组10天内行全肠外营养支持,观察血糖、血浆白蛋白、淋巴细胞计数,并发症发生率及预后。结果观察组能获得充足的能量和蛋白质合成物,1周时的血糖控制程度、血浆白蛋白及外周血淋巴细胞总数优于对照组（P〈0．05）,观察组并发症少于对照组。观察组10天后病死率为（15．79％）明显低于对照组（31．58％）。结论重型颅脑损伤行早期肠内营养和肠外营养结合符合病人的病理、生理要求,能使该类病人营养状况和生存率提高。     

肠内和肠外联合阶段性营养对重症急性胰腺炎患者治疗效果的影响

目的观察肠内和肠外联合阶段性营养对重症急性胰腺炎患者治疗效果的影响。方法重症急性胰腺炎患者45例分为完全胃肠外营养组（TPN组，n=25）和肠内营养加肠外阶段性营养组（PN＋EN组，n=20）。观察两组治疗结果以及临床指标的变化。结果营养支持后PN＋EN组的APACHEⅡ评分和CT评分均显著低于TPN组（P〈0．01）。营养支持两周后两组患者的血糖、血清淀粉酶和血肌酐水平均较营养支持前显著下降（P〈0．01），血清白蛋白、总蛋白、血钙水平均较营养支持前显著升高（P〈0．01），但是两组的各项指标比较无显著性差异（P〉0．05）。PN＋EN组患者的感染并发症发生率显著低于TPN组（P〈0．01），平均住院天数也显著短于TPN组（P〈0．01）。结论肠内和肠外联合阶段性营养支持方式的疗效优于完全胃肠外营养，对重症急性胰腺炎的治疗起了积极作用。     

进展期胃癌术后早期肠内-肠外营养联合应用与肠外营养的临床比较

目的探讨进展期胃癌术后早期肠内营养和肠外营养联合应用的可行性、安全性和临床效果。方法62例进展期胃癌患者术后第一天随机分为(1)肠外营养(PN)组;(2)肠内和肠外联合营养(EN-PN)组;(3)对照组。观察在治疗过程中3组患者并发症的发生率、术后肠功能恢复时间、平均住院天数及营养评定的各项指标,进行对比分析。结果对照组并发症发生率明显高于EN-PN组和PN组(P<0.05)。对照组术后胃肠功能恢复时间及平均住院天数较EN-PN组和PN组明显延长(P<0.05),而EN-PN组与其余两组比较显著缩短(P<0.05)。EN-PN组和PN组术后血清白蛋白、前白蛋白和转铁蛋白在营养支持后均明显升高(P<0.05),体重下降缓慢,负氮平衡均得到有效纠正。结论进展期胃癌术后早期肠内营养及肠外营养联合应用安全、可行,在改善机体营养状况方面与全肠外营养相似,并有促进和维护胃肠道功能的作用,同时费用较低。     

A Qualitative Study of the Perceived Value of Membership in The Oley Foundation by Home Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Consumers

Background: Support and educational organizations have been shown to improve quality of life of consumers of home nutrition support. One such organization, The Oley Foundation, offers resources for the home parenteral and enteral nutrition (HPEN) consumer. While research has shown proven benefits to HPEN consumers affiliated with The Oley Foundation, no studies have investigated the perceived value of membership to the consumer or the way in which consumers are introduced to the organization. Methods: Qualitative methodology was used to gain a deeper understanding of the perceived value of membership in The Oley Foundation. Audiotaped, in‐depth, semistructured telephone interviews were conducted to explore participants' experiences with The Oley Foundation and HPEN. Inductive content analysis was used to analyze data and identify themes associated with membership value. Results: The value of The Oley Foundation lies in programs and resources and the competency, inspiration, normalcy, and advocacy gained from membership, helping individuals adjust to life with HPEN dependency. More than half of participants found the organization through self‐initiated Internet searches, but all participants clearly expressed the desire “I wish I knew about it sooner.” Conclusion: This study identifies the value of membership in The Oley Foundation and the important role the organization has in the lives of HPEN‐dependent consumers. Nutrition support clinicians should introduce the organization to patients when the need for HPEN is established and prior to hospital discharge.     

胃癌手术后早期肠内肠外营养支持效果

目的探讨胃癌手术后早期肠内肠外营养(EN-PN)与完全肠外营养(TPN)的治疗效果。方法对2000年1月～2004年12月在我院普外科行胃癌根治术198例患者进行回顾性分析,其中97例(EN-PN组)采用术后早期肠内肠外营养治疗,101例(TPN组)采用完全肠外营养治疗,比较两组患者的术后营养指标(体重、血浆白蛋白、前白蛋白、视黄醇结合蛋白)、肛门排气时间、胃排空恢复时间、住院时间和总住院费、并发症发生率。结果EN-PN组术后第7天的血浆前白蛋白和视黄醇结合蛋白(302.54±58.65)g/L和(39.21±6.54)mg/L均显著高于TPN组的(236.89±48.84)g/L(P<0.05)和(25.36±5.37)mg/L(P<0.01);EN-PN组的肛门排气时间、胃排空恢复时间、住院时间分别为(56.8±7.1)小时、(6.6±3.8)天、(15.5±5.8)天,均显著少于TPN组的(79.6±14.6)小时(P<0.01)、(13.2±6.2)天(P<0.05)和(22.6±5.6)天(P<0.05);EN-PN组的并发症发生率18.6%和总住院费16568.35元均显著少于TPN组的40.6%(P<0.01)和28612.85元(P<0.01)。结论胃癌术后早期肠内肠外联合营养治疗安全可靠、简便易行、符合生理、肠功能恢复快、并发症少、费用低廉。     

Parenteral nutrition. Do dietitians have a role? Results of the Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Group survey

Aim: To examine the role of the nutrition support dietitian in parenteral nutrition (PN).
Methods: Two postal surveys were sent to members of the Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Group (PENG) in 1993 and 1995. The questionnaires were designed to examine four key areas of dietetic practice in PN.
Results: Response rates of 73% in 1993 and 75% in 1995 were achieved. In 1993, a minority of dietitians, only 5%, assumed total responsibility for the formulation of parenteral nutrition regimens. In 1995 this figure had risen to 14%. However, 83% of nutrition support dietitians wanted to increase their involvement in PN. Results from the 1995 survey showed that 42% of dietitians felt that education at undergraduate level was inadequate, whilst 58% felt education at postgraduate level could be improved.
Conclusion: Both surveys raised a number of issues concerning present prescribing practices of PN in the UK. There appears to be little practical clinical nutrition education concerning PN either in the medical, dietetic or pharmaceutical curriculum. This may indicate that present prescribing practices are suboptimal. Because dietitians are involved in nutritional assessment and calculation of nutritional requirements it would seem sensible that dietitians should have a greater prescribing role in PN. In order to become competent advisors in this area, more must be done to improve education for dietitians at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, otherwise the opportunity to be actively involved in this area may be lost.     

Strategies to Manage Gastrointestinal Symptoms Complicating Enteral Feeding

Diarrhea and abdominal distension are common complications associated with enteral feeding. Often the cause is unknown, the enteral formula is blamed and changes to the mode of delivery or formula are instituted. However, the evidence base for many strategies used is limited. Altering the osmolality and temperature of the formula and/or the rate of infusion are commonly practiced but evidence for their benefit is largely anecdotal. Preventing microbial contamination of the feed is important and clear guidelines exist to achieve this. The formulation itself can be modified. While the addition of fiber is well supported theoretically, outcome data are less convincing. Avoidance of osmotically active, poorly absorbed short‐chain carbohydrates in the formula (often used as the major carbohydrate source) is a new tactic to minimize diarrhea. It has compelling theoretical support, but requires further investigation. A methodical clinical approach to gastrointestinal complications of enteral feeding is warranted and an algorithm for management is proposed.     

结直肠癌患者术前肠道准备中肠内营养的应用

目的 探讨结直肠癌患者术前肠道准备中肠内营养的应用效果，并与肠外营养对比分析。方法 结直肠癌患者24例，分为两组，肠内营养组14例，肠外营养组10例。每天予104．6kJ（25kcal）／kg体重的能量及氮热比1：140的营养支持3天，测定各项观察指标并比较。结果 营养支持前后两组患者体重、纤维结合蛋白、前白蛋白、淋巴细胞总数、内毒素无变化，营养后两组患者间的体重、纤维结合蛋白、前白蛋白、淋巴细胞总数、内毒素、结肠腺体高度和宽度及腺体数目无显著改变；且两组患者肠道清洁度均较好。结论 肠内营养可改善患者营养不良状况，保持肠屏障功能，利于术前准备的肠道清洁。     

Ceramide in Lipid Emulsions Used in Parenteral Nutrition

Parenteral nutrition-associated liver disease is a prevalent and severe complication of long term parenteral nutrition. We present here for the first time data on the presence of ceramide, a bioactive compound involved in a variety of metabolic processes, in different lipid emulsions used in parenteral nutrition. Further research is needed to determine whether this potential harmful bioactive compound is involved in parenteral nutrition-associated liver disease.     

肠内营养对重症急性胰腺炎预后的影响

目的探讨肠内营养对重症急性胰腺炎(SAP)预后的影响。方法选择1990年1月至2005年4月在我院接受分期营养治疗的SAP患者253例,其中154例接受全肠外营养(TPN),组成TPN组;99例同时接受肠外营养(PN)和肠内营养(EN),组成PN+EN组。比较两组患者感染率、并发症发生率、住院时间和死亡率的差异。结果与TPN组相比,PN+EN组患者的胰腺感染率(10.1%vs.14.9%,P>0.05),其他部位感染率(20.2%vs.36.4%,P<0.05),并发症发生率(40.4%vs.53.9%,P<0.05)和死亡率(17.2%vs.19.5%,P>0.05)降低,住院时间缩短[(31.61±22.85)天vs.(38.17±25.50)天,P<0.05]。结论PN和EN联合应用是SAP首选的合理营养方式。     

From Parenteral to Enteral Nutrition

Background: Nutrition practices for preterm infants include phases of parenteral nutrition (PN), full enteral nutrition (EN), and the transitional phase in between. Our aim was to identify the nutrition phases during which infants are most likely to exhibit poor growth that would affect risk for growth failure (GF) at discharge and to examine factors associated with GF. Methods: A retrospective chart review was conducted on infants born <32 weeks’ gestation. The neonatal intensive care unit stay was divided into 3 nutrition phases: (1) full PN, (2) transitional PN + EN, and (3) full EN. Weekly growth rates were calculated, and for each growth velocity <10 g/kg/d, the coinciding phase was recorded. GF was defined as a discharge weight below the 10th percentile. The nutrition phases during which growth inadequacy predicted GF at discharge were determined, correcting for other clinical factors associated with GF. Results: In total, 156 eligible infants were identified. Seventy‐six infants (49%) were discharged with weights <10%. Incidence of poor growth was highest during the transitional phase (46%) and was predictive of GF when adjusted for gestational age, birth weight, and severity of illness. Although energy intakes during the transitional phase were comparable to baseline parenteral provision, protein intakes progressively decreased (P < .0001), consistently providing <3 g/kg/d as PN was weaned. Serum urea nitrogen also declined and was correlated with protein intake (r = ?0.32, P < .001). Conclusion: Growth was compromised during the transitional phase, likely related to decreased protein intake. Optimizing protein provision while PN is weaned is an important strategy to prevent postnatal growth failure.