Eating Behaviour among University Students: Relationships with Age,Socioeconomic Status,Physical Activity,Body Mass Index,Waist-to-Height Ratio and Social Desirability

Eating behaviour is of particular interest for research focusing on body weight status. However, little is known about the relationships of certain factors, especially social desirability, with self-reported eating behaviour such as cognitive restraint, uncontrolled eating, and emotional eating among young adult males and females. This study aimed to evaluate the relationships between eating behaviour and age, socioeconomic status (SES), physical activity (PA), body mass index (BMI), waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), and social desirability among university students. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 353 university students (59.2% females). Eating behaviour was assessed using the 13-item Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-13). SES and PA were determined using self-reporting, and the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale assessed social desirability. BMI and WHtR were calculated based on measured parameters. Associations between self-reported eating behaviour and other variables were assessed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient and multivariate general linear models. Cognitive restraint was positively correlated with BMI and WHtR in both males (r = 0.174, P = 0.036 and r = 0.194, P = 0.020, respectively) and females (r = 0.239, P < 0.001 and r = 0.165, P = 0.017, respectively), and emotional eating was positively correlated with BMI among females (r = 0.184, P = 0.008). Social desirability was negatively correlated with uncontrolled eating (r = −0.287, P < 0.001) and emotional eating (r = −0.301, P < 0.001) among females. There were no significant correlations between eating behaviour and age or socioeconomic status (P > 0.05). Multivariate analysis showed that, among males, PA had a main effect on emotional eating (ηp² = 0.044, F = 6.276, P = 0.013). Among females, cognitive restraint was positively associated with PA (ηp² = 0.034, F = 7.127, P = 0.008) and BMI (ηp² = 0.038, F = 7.959, P = 0.005), and emotional eating with BMI (ηp² = 0.032, F = 6.638, P = 0.011). Social desirability had the highest main effect on eating behaviour among females, being negatively associated with uncontrolled eating (ηp² = 0.077, F = 16.754, P < 0.001) and emotional eating (ηp² = 0.082, F = 18.046, P < 0.001). This study showed that PA, BMI, WHtR, and social desirability were associated with self-reported eating behaviour among university students. Social desirability bias should be considered when evaluating uncontrolled eating and emotional eating among females.     

The Effects of Sleep Quality and Resilience on Perceived Stress,Dietary Behaviors,and Alcohol Misuse: A Mediation-Moderation Analysis of Higher Education Students from Asia,Europe, and North America during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Background: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has increased the already high levels of stress that higher education students experience. Stress influences health behaviors, including those related to dietary behaviors, alcohol, and sleep; yet the effects of stress can be mitigated by resilience. To date, past research studying the connections between dietary behaviors, alcohol misuse, sleep, and resilience commonly investigated singular relationships between two of the constructs. The aim of the current study was to explore the relationships between these constructs in a more holistic manner using mediation and moderation analyses. Methods: Higher education students from China, Ireland, Malaysia, South Korea, Taiwan, the Netherlands, and the United States were enrolled in a cross-sectional study from April to May 2020, which was during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic for most participants. An online survey, using validated tools, was distributed to assess perceived stress, dietary behaviors, alcohol misuse, sleep quality and duration, and resilience. Results: 2254 students completed the study. Results indicated that sleep quality mediated the relationship between perceived stress and dietary behaviors as well as the relationship between perceived stress and alcohol misuse. Further, increased resilience reduced the strength of the relationship between perceived stress and dietary behaviors but not alcohol misuse. Conclusion: Based on these results, higher education students are likely to benefit from sleep education and resilience training, especially during stressful events.     

The Relationship between Restrained Eating,Body Image,and Dietary Intake among University Students in China: A Cross-Sectional Study

This study aims to explore the association between restrained eating, body image, and dietary intake among Chinese college students. This cross-sectional study included 1301 college students at two universities in Hunan Province. Electronic questionnaires were used to collect information including students’ demographic characteristics, restrained eating, perception of body weight, body satisfaction, and dietary intake. Anthropometric measurements were collected to calculate body mass index (BMI). The prevalence of high restrained eating was 52.8%. Students who were dissatisfied with their bodies or overestimated their body weight showed a higher tendency toward high restrained eating (p < 0.05). Students with high restrained eating tended to eat fruits and eggs more frequently, while the frequency of eating domestic animals and poultry, sugar-sweetened beverages, and fast food were the opposite. Moreover, high restrained eating was a risk factor for low dietary diversity (odds ratio (OR) = 1.384, 95% confidence interval: 1.002~1.912). The high incidence of restrained eating among Chinese college students and its energy-restricted diets that may lead to possible health implications require attention. Further studies are needed to investigate the characteristics of college students’ restrained eating to tailor appropriate interventions for forming positive body images and promoting healthy eating behaviors, thus, improving dietary quality.     

Risk Factors for Eating Disorders and Perception of Body in Young Adults Associated with Sex

(1) Background: The integrated approach to the prevention and treatment of eating disorders (EDs) requires knowledge and can be used only when specific risk factors are known. The aim of this study was to examine the differences in food choices and eating behavior between males and females; (2) Methods: This study comprised 148 females and 27 males aged from 18 to 26-years-old (MEAN ± SD = 21.4 ± 1.86 years old). Information about EDs was obtained from four different measures: the body mass index (BMI), the eating disorder screen for primary care (ESP), a standardized and validated questionnaire called “My Eating Habits” and the food frequency questionnaire with 10 answers (FFQ-10); (3) Results: The risk for developing eating disorders was detected in nearly 67% of respondents. It was also shown that EDs were more common in females and how body weight affected the way individuals feel about themselves. Females showed more unhealthy eating habits, which contributed to dietary restrictions and emotional overeating, as they were also afraid of gaining weight. The frequency of eating meat and drinking alcohol was higher in males, whereas eating legume seeds was less frequent in females. (4) Conclusions: This study opens a new field, which will help health care professionals recognize the problems with eating disorders and treat them based on different sex characteristics.     

Night eating is associated with emotional and external eating in college students

The night eating syndrome (NES) consists of evening hyperphagia and/or nocturnal eating and has been associated with depressed mood that worsens in the evening. However, it is not consistently related to elevated BMI. The present study was conducted to examine whether a relationship exists between NES and emotional, external, and restrained eating. BMI and sleep quality were also obtained. A sample of 246 students completed the Night Eating Diagnostic Questionnaire (NEDQ), Night Eating Syndrome History and Inventory (NESHI), Sleep Quality Index (SQI), and Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ), containing subscales for emotional, external, and restrained eating. They also provided demographic information, including height and weight. Participants were grouped by severity of NES features using the NEDQ and NESHI: normal, mild night eater, moderate night eater, and full night eater syndrome. MANOVA was used to compare DEBQ subscores for the groups; those in the full syndrome category had significantly higher emotional eating scores and external eating scores than those in the normal and mild categories. There was no difference in restrained eating between the normal and full syndrome groups. Those with moderate and full syndrome NES symptoms also reported significantly lower sleep quality. No significant relationship was found between NES and BMI. The results show that NES is associated with more eating in response to negative mood and in response to food cues.     

Eating styles, self-control and obesity indicators. The moderating role of obesity status and dieting history on restrained eating

We examined whether obesity status and dieting history affected the associations of eating styles with measured obesity indicators and self-control among Finnish men (n = 2325) and women (n = 2699) aged 25–75 years. Uncontrolled and emotional eating were positively associated with obesity and reversely with self-control. Among obese subjects and current/past dieters, higher restrained eating was related to lower adiposity, uncontrolled and emotional eating, and higher self-control while these associations were opposite among normal weight subjects and never dieters. These results suggest that restrained eating may be related to better weight control among those who need and/or are motivated to lose weight while among others it may indicate problems with eating.     

Is Physical Activity Protective against Emotional Eating Associated Factors during the COVID-19 Pandemic? A Cross-Sectional Study among Physically Active and Inactive Adults

Physical activity levels during the COVID-19 pandemic have been decreasing and this may be a risk factor for development of emotional eating and its associated factors. The aim of the study was to analyze the factors associated with emotional eating among individuals with different physical activity levels during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data relating to the pandemic on physical activity, emotional eating, sociodemographic data, perceptions about lifestyle habits, body satisfaction, and perceptions about eating habits and food consumption were collected. Factors associated with emotional eating in the group of active and inactive individuals were observed using multiple linear regression controlled for age, sex, BMI, and monthly income. Emotional eating for the active group was associated with perceived stress, body dissatisfaction, and increased consumption of sweets and desserts. In addition to these factors found among the active group, working or studying >8 h/day, sleep worsening, increased amount of food consumed, increased purchase of food through delivery, and increased vegetable consumption were also associated with emotional eating for the inactive group. These findings suggest a potential protective role of physical activity in the appearance of factors associated with emotional eating during the COVID-19 pandemic.     

Neuroticism and conscientiousness as predictors of emotional, external, and restrained eating behaviors.

OBJECTIVE: We investigated the extent to which different forms of eating behavior as assessed by the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire are related to facets of the Big Five personality domains. METHOD: Respondents were 167 psychology students (126 females and 41 males) who volunteered for the study. RESULTS: Body mass index (BMI) and gender had significant main effects on eating behaviors. These results were moderated by a significant BMI x Gender interaction on emotional eating. Eating behaviors were significantly related to the personality facets associated with Neuroticism and Conscientiousness. DISCUSSION: The results are discussed with reference to previous research on eating behaviors and the nature of Neuroticism and Conscientiousness.     

Perceived parental control of food intake is related to external, restrained and emotional eating in 7-12-year-old boys and girls

This study examined the prevalence of external, restrained and emotional eating and the relationship of these disturbed types of eating behaviours with perceived parental control of food intake (pressure to eat and restriction) in a group of 7- to 12-year-old boys and girls (n = 596). External eating turned out to be the most prevalent disturbed eating behaviour for boys and girls, followed by restrained eating and emotional eating. Sex differences were found in external and restrained eating. For the boys, perceived pressure to eat was positively related to emotional and external eating. For both sexes, perceived restriction to eat was negatively related to emotional and external eating and positively related to restrained eating. This led to the conclusion that perceived pressure to eat has a disruptive effect on a child's self-regulating mechanism of food intake, particularly so for boys, whereas perceived restriction can also have a positive effect.     

The Influence of Worries on Emotional Eating,Weight Concerns,and Body Mass Index in Latina Female Youth

PurposeTo investigate the effect of worries on weight concerns, emotional eating, and body mass index (BMI) percentile in an ethnically diverse sample of female youth.MethodsThis study used baseline and follow-up data from a brief school-based physical activity intervention trial involving minority female youth. Partial correlations adjusted for intervention status, age, and ethnicity were used to assess the relationships between emotional eating, weight concerns, and BMI percentile at follow-up. Multilevel modeling was used to analyze the relationships between baseline worries and follow-up emotional eating, weight concerns, and BMI percentile. Additional analysis assessed whether emotional eating mediated and/or moderated the relationship between baseline worries and follow-up BMI. Data were analyzed using SAS version 9.1.ResultsThe sample consisted of 404 minority females (67.1% Latina; mean age = 12.5 ± .6; 60.6% were of normal weight). Weight concerns were positively correlated with emotional eating and BMI percentile (p < .001 for both). At follow-up, baseline worries significantly predicted emotional eating (p = .027) and weight concerns (p < .001) but not BMI percentile (p = .183). Emotional eating did not mediate the relationship between baseline worries and follow-up BMI percentile; however, it did moderate the relationship between baseline worries and follow-up BMI percentile (p = .003).ConclusionsIn this sample, worries were associated with psychosocial variables but not with BMI percentile. Reducing worries in those with high emotional eating scores may influence future weight gain among Latina females.     

Possible pathways between depression, emotional and external eating. A structural equation model

Emotional and external eating appear to co-occur and both have been shown to correlate to neuroticism, especially depression. However, there is evidence suggesting that emotional and external eating are independent constructs. In this study we revisited the relation between depression, emotional, and external eating. Using structural equation modelling, we examined whether depression, emotional and external eating are directly related and also indirectly related through the intervening concepts alexithymia and impulsivity. Participants were 549 females concerned about their weight. They filled out instruments on emotional and external eating, depression, alexithymia, and impulse regulation. The relational structure between the model variables was explored for one half of the participants and this solution was checked using the other half. Our data showed a moderate relationship between emotional and external eating. Depression was positively and directly associated with emotional eating, but not with external eating. In addition, depression was indirectly related to emotional eating through both alexithymia and impulsivity. A significant relation was found between impulsivity and external eating. Results suggest potential mediating pathways between depression and emotional eating, while no relation appeared to exist between depression and external eating. Emotional and external eating would appear to be different constructs.     

Relationships between Dairy and Calcium Intake and Mental Health Measures of Higher Education Students in the United States: Outcomes from Moderation Analyses

Background: The prevalence of mental health concerns among university students in the United States (U.S.) continues to increase, while current treatments, including medication and counseling, present shortcomings. Higher dairy and calcium intakes are associated with protective effects on mental health; however, previous studies have focused on investigating singular relationships between dairy and calcium intakes and mental health measures. A more complex exploration of these relationships is warranted to better examine whether increasing dairy and calcium intakes could serve as an intervention to improve mental health. The present study sought to further characterize the relationships between dairy and calcium intake, perceived stress, and a variety of mental health measures using linear regression and moderation analyses. Methods: The present cross-sectional study involved students studying at three large U.S. universities, and data collection occurred from April to May 2020 when students were learning remotely due to the COVID-19 pandemic. An online survey comprising validated tools was distributed among students to assess dairy and calcium intake, perceived stress, anxiety, negative and positive moods, rumination, and resilience, sleep quality and duration, dietary risk, and physical activity. Results: A total of 1233 students completed the study. Higher dairy and calcium intake was coincident with lower perceived stress and higher positive mood scores, while higher calcium intake was also coincident with lower anxiety, rumination, and higher resilience scores. Additionally, as calcium intake increased, the relationship between perceived stress and anxiety and the relationship between perceived stress and negative mood weakened. Dairy intake did not have this effect. Conclusions: Based on the results, and considering that calcium is a shortfall nutrient, universities should consider initiating programs and public health campaigns to promote dairy and calcium intake among this population.     

Family cohesion,family adaptability,and eating behaviors among college students

Do normative young people, who tend to eat compulsively or to diet restrictively, perceive their families as relatively enmeshed and rigid, i.e., resembling the “psychosomatic family” profile associated with clinical populations of bulimics and anorexics? To answer this question, 300 college students were surveyed with self-report inventories assessing eating behaviors and perceived family cohesion and adaptability. Perceptions of family behavior were NOT significantly related to dieting. Among females, compulsive eating was associated with families perceived to be relatively uncohesive. Among males, family variables accounted for a surprisingly large proportion (18%) of the variance in compulsive eating behaviors. Males who tended to eat compulsively perceived their families as relatively uncohesive and rigid, were relatively dissatisfied with their families, and had relatively cold relationships with each parent. In sum, data suggested that subjects who binged or dieted restrictively did NOT appear to share the family pattern associated with clinical eating disorders. Compulsive eating among females may have represented simply a response to environmental stress, while among males it may have reflected pervasive inadequacies perceived in intrafamily relationships.     

Ovarian hormones and emotional eating associations across the menstrual cycle: An examination of the potential moderating effects of body mass index and dietary restraint

Objective:

Associations between within‐person changes in ovarian hormones and dysregulated eating (binge eating, emotional eating) have been observed across the menstrual cycle. However, studies have not examined moderators that may contribute to differential associations between individuals. We investigated body‐weight regulation variables [body mass index (BMI), dietary restraint] that have theoretical relevance by virtue of their associations with both phenotypes.

Method:

Women (N = 196) provided emotional eating ratings and saliva samples for 45 days. BMI and restraint were assessed at three time points and averaged.

Results:

Results showed significant estradiol × progesterone interactions in the prediction of within‐subject changes in emotional eating. Neither BMI nor restraint moderated these relationships, although a trend‐level dietary restraint × estradiol interaction was observed where estradiol's effects were enhanced in high restraint scorers.

Discussion:

Findings confirm a role for hormones in changes in emotional eating and suggest that restraint might enhance hormone effects in severegroups. © 2013 by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (Int J Eat Disord 2013)     

The relationship between restrained eating and poor psychological health is moderated by pleasure normally associated with eating

This study investigated the relationship between restrained eating and poor psychological health, and the importance of pleasure normally associated with eating in this relationship. Pleasure normally associated with eating, restrained eating, and anxiety, depression and satisfaction with life were assessed concurrently by questionnaire. A relationship between restrained eating and poor psychological health was found--greater restrained eating was significantly independently associated with greater anxiety (B=1.099, p<0.01). Furthermore, pleasure associated with eating was an important moderator in this relationship--greater pleasure associated with eating combined with greater restrained eating was also significantly independently associated with greater anxiety (B=1.067, p=0.02). No effects were found for depression or satisfaction with life. These findings suggest that the pleasure normally associated with eating is important in the relationship between restrained eating and poor psychological health. Subsidiary exploratory analyses also suggest that the relationship between restrained eating and poor psychological health, and the importance of pleasure in that relationship, may differ in males and females.     

Psychological stress, coping, and symptoms of disordered eating in a community sample of young Australian women

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationships among stress, coping, and symptoms of disordered eating in a community sample of young Australian women. METHOD: A longitudinal study design was employed. Two mail-out surveys, assessing perceived psychological stress, coping strategies, body weight dissatisfaction, dieting, and disordered eating behaviors, were completed 6 months apart by 415 young women selected from a cohort of the Women's Health Australia Study. RESULTS: Strong cross-sectional relationships among the study variables were found. Results of longitudinal analyses, however, demonstrated only tenuous relationships among stress, coping, and later symptoms of disordered eating. DISCUSSION: These results did not support the hypothesis that stress and coping strategies would predict disordered eating over time. Some evidence was found for a modest reverse relationship between stress and disordered eating. Although contrary to generally accepted theoretical models of disordered eating, these findings are consistent with those of the few previous longitudinal studies reported. Theoretical implications are discussed.     

Fast Eating Is Associated with Increased BMI among High-School Students

Fast self-reported eating rate (SRER) has been associated with increased adiposity in children and adults. No studies have been conducted among high-school students, and SRER has not been validated vs. objective eating rate (OBER) in such populations. The objectives were to investigate (among high-school student populations) the association between OBER and BMI z-scores (BMIz), the validity of SRER vs. OBER, and potential differences in BMIz between SRER categories. Three studies were conducted. Study 1 included 116 Swedish students (mean ± SD age: 16.5 ± 0.8, 59% females) who were eating school lunch. Food intake and meal duration were objectively recorded, and OBER was calculated. Additionally, students provided SRER. Study 2 included students (n = 50, mean ± SD age: 16.7 ± 0.6, 58% females) from Study 1 who ate another objectively recorded school lunch. Study 3 included 1832 high-school students (mean ± SD age: 15.8 ± 0.9, 51% females) from Sweden (n = 748) and Greece (n = 1084) who provided SRER. In Study 1, students with BMIz ≥ 0 had faster OBER vs. students with BMIz < 0 (mean difference: +7.7 g/min or +27%, p = 0.012), while students with fast SRER had higher OBER vs. students with slow SRER (mean difference: +13.7 g/min or +56%, p = 0.001). However, there was “minimal” agreement between SRER and OBER categories (κ = 0.31, p < 0.001). In Study 2, OBER during lunch 1 had a “large” correlation with OBER during lunch 2 (r = 0.75, p < 0.001). In Study 3, fast SRER students had higher BMIz vs. slow SRER students (mean difference: 0.37, p < 0.001). Similar observations were found among both Swedish and Greek students. For the first time in high-school students, we confirm the association between fast eating and increased adiposity. Our validation analysis suggests that SRER could be used as a proxy for OBER in studies with large sample sizes on a group level. With smaller samples, OBER should be used instead. To assess eating rate on an individual level, OBER can be used while SRER should be avoided.     

Restraint, dieting and watching what you eat amongst female students

Summary    'Watching what you eat' has been proposed as an activity distinct from dieting (Nichter et al . 1995), although the two are often conflated in nutritional surveys. This study examined the validity of 'watching' by relating it to the psychological trait of dietary restraint, which is defined as concern for dieting and weight fluctuation, using the restraint scale from the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ) (van Strien et al . 1986). Subjects were 153 female undergraduate students who were asked four questions to assess 'watching' and 'dieting' behaviours and completed the DEBQ which has three separate scales measuring emotional, external and restrained eating behaviour. The majority of the sample reported sometimes watching what they ate, and this was more common than dieting. Non-watchers had the lowest restraint scores, followed by watchers and dieters who had the highest restraint scores. It is concluded that 'watching what you eat' is a normal form of restrained eating distinct from dieting and that the method of asking four simple questions about dietary behaviour can assess level of restrained eating. This distinction may clarify the difference between 'healthy' and 'unhealthy' dieting.     

Weight Misperception,Self-Reported Physical Fitness,Dieting and Some Psychological Variables as Risk Factors for Eating Disorders

The aims of the current study were to explore possible gender differences in weight misperception, self-reported physical fitness, and dieting, and to analyze the relationship between these variables and others, such as self-esteem, body appreciation, general mental health, and eating- and body image-related variables among adolescents. In addition, the specific risk for eating disorders was examined, as well as the possible clusters with respect to the risk status. The sample comprised 655 students, 313 females and 342 males, aged 16.22 ± 4.58. Different scales of perceived overweight, self-reported physical fitness and dieting together with the Body Mass Index (BMI) were considered along with instruments such as the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28), Self-Esteem Scale (SES), Body Appreciation Scale (BAS) and Eating Disorders Inventory-2 (EDI-2). Since some gender differences were found with respect to these adolescent groups, it is necessary to design prevention programs that not only focus on traditional factors such as BMI or body image, but also on elements like weight perception, self-reported fitness and nutritional education.     

BMI as a moderator of perceived stress and emotional eating in adolescents

Emotional eating has often been linked to overweight and/or obesity. Multiple group SEM analyses were conducted using cross-sectional data from 517 minority students in Los Angeles County. Results showed no differences in emotional eating between normal weight and overweight students. Perceived stress was indeed a significant correlate of emotional eating, independent of BMI status, as indicated by the lack of a modifying effect of BMI status. Findings highlight the fact that emotional eating is not an issue only for overweight and obese persons. This study shows that some children in this population at increased risk for obesity and related chronic disease have already incorporated emotional eating as a learned response to stress by the time that they enter adolescence.