Clinical applications of volar portals in wrist arthroscopy

Volar portals for wrist arthroscopy have certain advantages over the standard dorsal portals for visualizing dorsal capsular structures as well as the palmar aspects of the carpal ligaments. The volar radial portal is relatively easy to use and is an ideal portal for evaluation of the dorsal radiocarpal ligament and the palmar aspect of the scapholunate interosseous ligament. The volar midcarpal portal may be considered as an occasional accessory portal for visualizing the palmar aspects of the capitate and hamate in cases of avascular necrosis or osteochondral fractures. The volar ulnar portal is especially useful for the viewing and debridement of palmar tears of the lunotriquetral ligament.     

腕关节镜掌侧入路的实验与临床研究

目的 报告腕关节镜掌侧入路的设计及初步应用结果.方法 腕关节镜掌桡侧入路定位在桡侧腕屈肌腱桡侧与舟骨结节交界处,掌尺侧入路定位在尺侧腕屈肌腱的尺侧缘、豌豆骨近侧0.5 cm处.对20具防腐腕关节以上离断标本进行解剖学研究,5具新鲜腕关节以上离断标本进行模拟镜下手术.2004年4月至2008年1月,共进行腕关节镜掌侧入路手术20例.男8例,女12例;年龄21～64岁,平均35.6岁.结果 掌侧入路与其周围的血管、神经等结构均有一定的安全距离.掌侧入路镜检可以清晰显示背侧关节囊、舟月骨间韧带的掌侧部分和月三角骨间韧带的掌侧部分.通过掌侧入路置入关节镜,背侧入路置入手术器械,可以更方便地处理腕关节腔背侧部分的病变.20例临床病例均未发生并发症,平均随访23.4(12～37)个月.末次随访时,腕关节背伸-掌屈活动度为134°±16°,桡尺偏活动度为39°±8°,旋前-旋后活动度为139°±18°.术前有2例疼痛为Ⅱ级,18例疼痛为Ⅲ级;末次随访时,11例疼痛为Ⅰ级,8例为Ⅱ级,1例为Ⅲ级;疼痛缓解显著(Z=31.2,P＜0.01).改良Garland和Werley评分为:优10例,良6例,可4例,优良率为80%.结论 腕关节镜掌侧入路是传统背侧入路的重要补充,具有安全性高、操作方便的优点.     

Distal radioulnar joint arthroscopy and the volar ulnar portal

Pain on the ulnar side of the wrist remains poorly understood. As attention has shifted toward the myriad causes of ulnar-sided wrist pain, the utility of viewing the wrist from a volar ulnar (VU) perspective has emerged. Lunotriquetral ligament tears have been implicated in the pathogenesis of volar intercalated segmental instabilities. They often originate in the palmar subregion, which is most important for maintaining stability. These tears are difficult to visualize through the 4, 5, or 6R portals. They are well seen through a VU portal, and the direct line of sight facilitates debridement. The VU portal has potential use in the arthroscopic diagnosis and treatment of patients with injuries to the ulnar sling mechanism. It aids in triangular fibrocartilage repairs especially those involving the dorsal aspect between the ulnar styloid and the radial insertion, because the proximity of the 4, 5, and 6R portals makes triangulation of the instruments difficult. Although arthroscopy of the dorsal aspect of the distal radioulnar joint has been well described, it has largely remained a curiosity, with few clinical indications. Recent biomechanical studies have highlighted the importance of the deep attachment of the triangular fibrocartilage complex in maintaining distal radioulnar joint stability. The volar distal radioulnar portal is useful for assessing the foveal attachment. It may be used where there is the suspicion of a peripheral triangular fibrocartilage detachment due to a loss of its normal tension despite the lack of a visible tear during radiocarpal arthroscopy. The judicious use of these portals deserves consideration for inclusion as part of a thorough arthroscopic examination of selected patients with ulnar-sided wrist pain.     

腕关节镜掌侧和背侧联合入路的临床应用及效果

目的 介绍一种腕关节镜掌侧入路建立的新方法,报道使用掌侧和背侧联合入路对腕部疾患诊断和治疗的体会.方法 采用"由内向外的交换棒技术"和"由外向内的浅切开深分离"相结合技术建立腕关节镜掌侧入路.自2004年起,通过掌侧和背侧联合入路,进行11例腕部疾患的腕关节镜手术;三角纤维软骨复合体损伤3例(根据Palmer分型,2A型2例,2C型1例),桡骨远端骨折合并韧带损伤5例(根据AO分型,B1型2例,C3型3例),痛风性关节炎3例.男5例,女6例;年龄30～82岁,平均52岁.对所有病例进行随访观察,了解手术的并发症和治疗效果.结果 通过掌侧入路,成功地观察到腕关节的背侧结构,诊断损伤,并能在镜下施行清理和骨折复位手术.所有病例腕关节活动度得以恢复,疼痛有明显缓解,术后腕关节患者自行评估量表(patient-rated wrist evaluation,PRWE)评分为28.6±9.3.术后3～6个月随访显示无手术相关并发症.结论 通过新技术进行腕关节镜掌侧和背侧联合入路手术,安全可行,是腕部疾患诊疗的一种有效方法.     

Arthroscopic assessment of the volar region of the scapholunate interosseous ligament through a volar portal

PURPOSE: The volar region of the scapholunate interosseous ligament is one of the key structures that maintains scapholunate alignment. It is, however, difficult to evaluate this ligament using standard diagnostic procedures, including the arthroscopy through a dorsal portal. We have performed arthroscopic evaluation of this ligament through a volar portal. METHODS: Skin incision was made at just radial of the flexor carpi radialis tendon and the portal was opened through the tendon sheath. RESULTS: The volar approach enabled us to directly observe the extent of the tear of the volar region of scapholunate interosseous ligament. A shaver is inserted through the dorsal portal, and debridement can be performed by using the volar portal vein. We have not had any complications using volar portal. CONCLUSION: Volar approach is a feasible and safe procedure to evaluate and treat the volar region of the scapholunate interosseous ligament.     

Arthroscopic Suture Repair of Peripheral Tears of Triangular Fibrocartilage Complex Using a Volar Portal

Surgical repair of a Palmer type IB triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) tear can be difficult using conventional dorsal portals and it may need special repair kits. The authors describe an arthroscopic technique using an additional volar portal that allows quick access and a secure purchase of peripheral TFCC tears as well as a distinct approach to dorsal wrist structures.     

Ulnar-sided perilunate instability: an anatomic and biomechanic study

A staging system for ulnar-sided perilunate instability is presented based on a series of cadaver dissections and load studies. Stage I: partial or complete disruption of the lunotriquetral interosseous ligament, without clinical and/or radiographic evidence of dynamic or static volar intercalated segment instability deformity; stage II: complete disruption of the lunotriquetral interosseous ligament and disruption of the palmar lunotriquetral ligament, with clinical and/or radiographic evidence of dynamic volar intercalated segment instability deformity; and stage III: complete disruption of the lunotriquetral interosseous and the palmar lunotriquetral ligaments, attenuation or disruption of the dorsal radiocarpal ligament, with clinical and/or radiographic evidence of static volar intercalated segment instability deformity.     

The volar portal in wrist arthroscopy

Wrist arthroscopy is not only a diagnostic tool; it has also developed into a valuable treatment alternative for several wrist disorders. All of the standard portals are dorsally located, leaving the dorsal sector of the radiocarpal and midcarpal joint partially invisible. A volar portal has been developed through the bed of the flexor carpi radialis tendon, thus expanding the therapeutic possibilities. We report our personal experience with the use of a volar portal in 28 of 206 (14%) wrist arthroscopies. No technical problems or neurovascular complications were encountered. We think the standardized approach as described is valuable and safe.     

Carpal instability nondissociative

Carpal instability nondissociative (CIND) represents a spectrum of conditions characterized by kinematic dysfunction of the proximal carpal row, often associated with a clinical "clunk." CIND is manifested at the midcarpal and/or radiocarpal joints, and it is distinguished from carpal instability dissociative (CID) by the lack of disruption between bones within the same carpal row. There are four major subcategories of CIND: palmar, dorsal, combined, and adaptive. In palmar CIND, instability occurs across the entire proximal carpal row. When nonsurgical management fails, surgical options include arthroscopic thermal capsulorrhaphy, soft-tissue reconstruction, or limited radiocarpal or intercarpal fusions. In dorsal CIND, the capitate subluxates dorsally from its reduced resting position. Dorsal CIND usually responds to nonsurgical management; refractory cases respond to palmar ligament reefing and/or dorsal intercarpal capsulodesis. Combined CIND demonstrates signs of both palmar and dorsal CIND and can be treated with soft-tissue or bony procedures. In adaptive CIND, the volar carpal ligaments are slackened and are less capable of inducing the physiologic shift of the proximal carpal row from flexion into extension as the wrist ulnarly deviates. Treatment of choice is a corrective osteotomy to restore the normal volar tilt of the distal radius.     

Corrective osteotomy of malunited distal radius fractures

The malunion of the distal radius may result in shortening, radial impaction, volar angulation, dorsal displacement or rotatory deformity. For restoration, the anatomy and kinematics of the distal radioulnar joint and the triangular fibrocartilaginous complex (TFCC) are of importance. This nonunion consists of the articular disk, a meniscus homologue, the ulnar collateral ligament, and the dorsal and palmar radioulnar ligaments. Malunion of the distal radioulnar joint leads to an increase in loading on the individual parts, as well as pain and a decrease in supination and pronation. Osteotomy is indicated if the angulation of the malunion is more than 20 degrees in the frontal or sagittal plane. Corrective osteotomy requires detailed preoperative planning with calculation of the correct position in all planes. The most common operation that has proved to be effective is osteotomy of the radius, insertion of a trapezoidal bone graft in place, and internal fixation with a dorsal or volar plate.     

Arthroscopic resection of wrist ganglia.

The arthroscopic resection of synovial cysts of the wrist is a simple technique which is comfortable for the patient. We report on a series of 96 patients with dorsal synovial cysts (75 women, 21 men). All patients had undergone preliminary treatment which had been unsuccessful. We operated on 32 patients with a volar cyst (27 women, five men). All the patients were operated on as outpatients under local regional anaesthesia. For the dorsal cysts, after having precisely located the cyst, it is then resected after having inserted a shaver directly through the wall of the cyst starting with the capsule. For the volar cysts the arthroscope was inserted through a 3-4 portal and the shaver was inserted through a 1-2 radiocarpal portal. In all cases, there was no immobilisation and a range of motion was started the same day. For the dorsal cysts, our average follow-up was 34 months (range 12-46 months). There were no complications. We had four recurrences. For the palmar cysts, our average follow-up was 26 months (range 12-39 months). There have been no recurrences to date.     

Immunohistochemical analysis of wrist ligament innervation in relation to their structural composition

PURPOSE: To analyze ligament innervation and the structural composition of wrist ligaments to investigate the potential differences in sensory and biomechanical functions. METHODS: The ligaments analyzed were the dorsal radiocarpal, dorsal intercarpal, scaphotriquetral, dorsal scapholunate interosseous, scaphotrapeziotrapezoid, radioscaphoid, scaphocapitate, radioscaphocapitate, long radiolunate, short radiolunate, ulnolunate, palmar lunotriquetral interosseous, triquetrocapitate, and triquetrohamate ligaments. The ligaments were harvested from 5 cadaveric, fresh-frozen specimens. By using the immunohistochemical markers p75, Protein Gene Product 9.5, and S-100 protein, the mechanoreceptors and nerve fibers could be identified. RESULTS: The innervation pattern in the ligaments was found to vary distinctly, with a pronounced innervation in the dorsal wrist ligaments (dorsal radiocarpal, dorsal intercarpal, scaphotriquetral, dorsal scapholunate interosseous), an intermediate innervation in the volar triquetral ligaments (palmar lunotriquetral interosseous, triquetrocapitate, triquetrohamate), and only limited/occasional innervation in the remaining volar wrist ligaments. The innervation pattern also was reflected in the structural differences between the ligaments. When present, mechanoreceptors and nerve fibers were consistently found in the loose connective tissue in the outer region (epifascicular region) of the ligament. Hence, ligaments with abundant innervation had a large epifascicular region, as compared with the ligaments with limited innervation, which consisted mostly of densely packed collagen fibers. CONCLUSIONS: The results of our study suggest that wrist ligaments vary with regard to sensory and biomechanical functions. Rather, based on the differences found in structural composition and innervation, wrist ligaments are regarded as either mechanically important ligaments or sensory important ligaments. The mechanically important ligaments are ligaments with densely packed collagen bundles and limited innervation. They are located primarily in the radial, force-bearing column of the wrist. The sensory important ligaments, by contrast, are richly innervated although less dense in connective tissue composition and are related to the triquetrum. The triquetrum and its ligamentous attachments are regarded as key elements in the generation of the proprioceptive information necessary for adequate neuromuscular wrist stabilization.     

Prognosis of wrist ganglion operations

A retrospective study was conducted to evaluate the results of treatment of 40 wrist ganglia operated under local anesthesia over four years. The mean follow-up period was 27 months (range 6-48 months). There were 24 dorsal and 16 volar ganglia. The mean complication rate was 56% for volar ganglia, 12.5% for dorsal ganglia, and the difference was significant (p < 0.05). The recurrence rates were 31.2% and 8.3%, respectively (mean 17.5%). There was evidence of nerve damage to the superficial branch of the radial nerve in one patient (dorsal cyst) and to the palmar cutaneous branch of the median nerve in two patients (volar cysts). The mean nerve injury rate was 7.5%. In two patients with volar ganglia, the palmar superficial branch of the radial artery was lace-rated and had to be ligated. The significantly higher complication rate after excision of volar ganglia in contrast to dorsal ones might indicate that the former should be approached more carefully in contrast to dorsal ones and preferably by a senior surgeon.     

Micro-CT扫描下舟月骨间韧带的显微解剖学研究

目的研究舟月骨间韧带(SLIL)的形态和血供分布,并从解剖学角度探讨临床上SLIL损伤对其血供的影响及重建的方法。方法2018年10月至2018年12月,选取12例新鲜成人前臂标本,从尺动脉或桡动脉灌注明胶-氧化铅溶液,于Micro-CT下扫描,通过Mimics软件三维重建图像,观察SLIL在中立位的形态和韧带内滋养血管分布,测量韧带掌侧、背侧和近端的宽度、长度、厚度,测量SLIL内滋养血管入口处的解剖参数,并分析其与舟、月骨的血供关系。结果①数字化技术三维重建SLIL的大体形态并测量其解剖参数,近端长度均值最大,掌侧、背侧长度相近;韧带掌侧最宽,厚度最小,而背侧与近端在厚度与宽度上相近。②SLIL的近端无滋养血管分布,掌侧与背侧均有丰富的滋养血管分布,其血供分布差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。③SLIL的掌侧与背侧内滋养血管从SLIL附着处进入舟、月骨内形成吻合。结论SLIL掌侧较宽且厚度小,从解剖学角度分析其较其它亚区更易损伤;其掌侧与背侧亚区均有丰富的血供且与舟、月骨内相吻合,而近端无血管分布,因此,掌、背侧韧带早期轻度损伤有一定的自我修复能力,而近端损伤则较难修复,韧带掌侧与背侧损伤对舟、月骨血供会产生一定影响。     

Chronic instability of the distal radioulnar joint

The ligament reconstruction technique described closely reconstructs the anatomic origin and insertion of the palmar and dorsal radioulnar ligaments. In a series of 14 patients, stability was completely restored in 12. Patients were able to return to their previous work, athletic activities, and avocations without limitations. Recovery of strength and motion was at least 85%. One patient with initial bidirectional instability and good early surgical correction developed recurrent volar instability. Another patient had persistent preoperative ulnocarpal instability and an insufficient volar rim of the sigmoid notch from a previous fracture, but the DRUJ was stabilized. Ligament reconstruction is effective for DRUJ instability but requires a competent sigmoid notch; however, it may not fully correct ulnocarpal instability.     

Volar Barton's fractures with concomitant dorsal fracture in older patients

PURPOSE: To describe a variant of Barton's volar articular shearing fracture of the distal radial articular surface with a subtle concomitant fracture of the dorsal metaphyseal cortex. METHODS: This fracture pattern was observed in 6 women and 2 men with an average age of 67 years (range, 58-76 years). All 8 patients were treated with a volar plate and screws. The dorsal metaphyseal fracture was not recognized in 5 patients and a volar buttress plating technique using an intentionally undercontoured volar plate was used. In 3 patients the dorsal fracture line was identified before surgery and the plate was contoured to fit the volar surface of the distal radius. RESULTS: All 5 patients treated with an undercontoured plate had loss of the normal palmar tilt of the distal radius (average,-9.4 degrees; range, 0 degrees to-22 degrees ) and dorsal translation of the distal radial articular fragments. For the entire group the palmar tilt averaged-5.9 degrees (range, 0.0 degrees to-22.0 degrees ), the ulnar inclination 19 degrees (range, 10 degrees -23 degrees ), and the ulnar variance-0.9 mm (range, 0.0 to-3.0 mm). All patients attained forearm supination of 80 degrees and the average pronation was 75 degrees (range, 45 degrees -80 degrees ). According to Sarmiento's modification of the system of Gartland and Werley there were 1 excellent, 6 good, and 1 fair results. The average Patient-Rated Wrist Evaluation score was 16 (range, 0-35). CONCLUSIONS: Some fractures with an oblique volar marginal articular fracture of the distal radius and volar radiocarpal subluxation (known as Barton's fracture) may also have a fracture through the dorsal metaphyseal cortex. Failure to identify this fracture line can lead to dorsal translation and angulation of the distal radius articular surface, particularly when an undercontoured volar plate is used for internal fixation.     

Begutachtung der SL- und LT-Band-Schäden

In terms of function, the wrist is a taut ring-like structure with a rotationally balanced lunate bone. The scaphoid and lunate bones as well as the lunate and triquetral bones are all joined by a U-shaped ligament, the three parts of which are strongest at the dorsal scapholunate (SL) ligament and the palmar lunotriquetral (LT) ligament. An SL- or LT-ligament rupture breaks down the ring-like structure. Due to torsional stability in the intercalated segment, DISI (dorsal intercalated segment instability) or PISI (volar intercalated segment instability) occur in the event of rupture of the LT and/or SL ligaments which, if left untreated, progress to carpal collapse. Static instability can be diagnosed radiologically, while diagnosis of dynamic instability requires cinematography, stress X-rays, magnetic resonance imaging or arthroscopy, the latter being the most reliable. The nature of the accident is also important in terms of an expert opinion, since there are only a few mechanisms which lead to rupture of the SL or LT ligaments. SL- and/or LT-ligament tears frequently occur as concomitant injuries in the case of distal radial or perilunar fractures, among other hand injury complexes.     

Lunotriquetral injuries in the athlete

The athlete with an LT injury typically presents with ulnar-sided wrist pain after a high-energy impaction of the wrist. Reagan's LT ballottement test and Kleinman's shear test help the examiner identify these injuries. A thorough radiographic examination includes standard PA and lateral radiographs. Magnetic resonance imaging or arthrography can be performed, but the sensitivity of these imaging studies varies. The palmar portion of the LT interosseous ligament, dorsal radiocarpal ligament, and dorsal intercarpal ligament play the most significant roles in LT stability. Lunotriquetral injuries without instability respond well to immobilization. Arthroscopy is valuable in staging and determining treatment but requires a thorough radiocarpal and midcarpal examination. Acute LT injuries with instability are treated with arthroscopic-assisted reduction and pinning. If desired, this procedure can be incorporated with an open ligament repair through a volar approach. Chronic LT tears without instability can also be treated arthroscopically. Treatment of the chronic LT tear with instability depends on the degree of collapse. Treatment in the athlete includes ligament reconstruction with capsulodesis or, rarely, intercarpal LT arthrodesis.     

The anatomy and vascularity of the lunate: considerations applied to Kienböck's disease

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to assess the anatomy and vascularity of the lunate. The genesis of lunatomalacia requires some combination of vascular risk and mechanical predisposition. The findings will be correlated with the major existing theories of the cause of Kienböck's disease.MethodsWe studied 27 cadaver upper limbs using latex injection and the Spalteholz technique. We investigated the blood supply to the lunate. In 24 wrists we evaluated the incidence and distribution of anatomic features, arthrosis, and soft tissue lesions. We correlated the lunate morphology and ligaments disruptions with the arthritic changes.ResultsThe lunate morphology results as classified by Antuña-Zapico were five type I (20.8%), 18 type II (75%) and one type III (4.2%). The lunate was found to have a separate facet for the hamate in 11 cases (45.8%). The most common size of the facet was found to be 3 mm (range, 3–6 mm). Arthrosis was identified with most frequency in the radius (88.2%) and lunate (94.1%). The triangular fibrocartilage complex was found torn in 58.3%, the lunotriquetral interosseous ligament was torn in 20.8% and the scapholunate interosseous ligament (SLIL) was torn in 54.2% of the wrists. There was a correlation between the presence of arthrosis at the hamate and the presence of a lunate facet (P = 0.027) and a correlation between the presence of a tear in the SLIL and arthrosis in the scaphoid (P = 0.002). The nutrient vessels entered the lunate through the dorsal and volar poles in all the specimens. The dorsal intercarpal and radiocarpal arches supply blood to the lunate from a plexus of vessels located directly over the lunate's dorsal pole. Vessels entered the dorsal aspect of the lunate through one to three foramina. One to five nutrient vessels were observed entering the volar pole through various ligament insertions, including the ligament of Testut-Kuentz (radio-scapho-lunate (RSL) ligament) and the radiolunate triquetrum ligament (or dorsoradial carpal ligament) and ulnar lunate triquetral ligament.ConclusionsThe lunate had consistent dorsal and palmar arteries entering the bone in all the specimens. The blood supply and foramina number is greater in the volar pole of the lunate than the dorsal pole. The lunate blood supply comes from different ligaments. In the etiopathogeny of Kienböck's disease it is possible that an acute or chronic, traumatic or non-traumatic injury of the vessel bearing ligaments, particularly because of their structure and the location of the RSL ligament, may have an important role in the appearance of lunate necrosis.